{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,17]],"date-time":"2026-03-17T22:52:17Z","timestamp":1773787937931,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":38,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]],"date-time":"2024-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1710115200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"science and technology project of State Grid Corporation of China","award":["5108-202218280A-2-405-XG"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["5108-202218280A-2-405-XG"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>As an important component of the smart grid, vehicle-to-grid (V2G) networks can deliver diverse auxiliary services and enhance the overall resilience of electrical power systems. However, V2G networks face two main challenges due to a large number of devices that connect to it. First, V2G networks suffer from serious security threats, such as doubtful authenticity and privacy leakage. Second, the efficiency will decrease significantly due to the massive requirements of authentication. To tackle these problems, this paper proposes a cross-domain authentication scheme for V2G networks based on consortium blockchain and certificateless signature technology. Featuring decentralized, open, and transparent transactions that cannot be tampered with, this scheme achieves good performance on both security and efficiency, which proves to be suitable for V2G scenarios in the smart grid.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym16030336","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]],"date-time":"2024-03-11T08:56:41Z","timestamp":1710147401000},"page":"336","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A 3C Authentication: A Cross-Domain, Certificateless, and Consortium-Blockchain-Based Authentication Method for Vehicle-to-Grid Networks in a Smart Grid"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Qianhao","family":"Miao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]},{"given":"Tianyu","family":"Ren","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Grid Beijing Electric Power Research Institute, Beijing 100075, China"}]},{"given":"Jiahan","family":"Dong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Grid Beijing Electric Power Research Institute, Beijing 100075, China"}]},{"given":"Yanjiao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]},{"given":"Wenyuan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Electrical Engineering, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310027, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpowsour.2004.12.025","article-title":"Vehicle-to-grid power fundamentals: Calculating capacity and net revenue","volume":"144","author":"Kempton","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Power Sources"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Park, J., Kim, H., and Choi, J.Y. (2019). Improving TCP performance in vehicle-to-grid (V2G) communication. Electronics, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics8111206"},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"3304","article-title":"Secure and privacy-preserving physical-layer-assisted scheme for EV dynamic charging system","volume":"67","author":"Alsharif","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2008.10.005","article-title":"Beyond batteries: An examination of the benefits and barriers to plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) and a vehicle-to-grid (V2G) transition","volume":"37","author":"Sovacool","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4379","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enpol.2009.05.053","article-title":"A conceptual framework for the vehicle-to-grid (V2G) implementation","volume":"37","author":"Guille","year":"2009","journal-title":"Energy Policy"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1109\/TPWRS.2010.2049133","article-title":"Assessment of the impact of plug-in electric vehicles on distribution networks","volume":"26","author":"Fernandez","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Power Syst."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.1109\/MWC.2016.1600039WC","article-title":"Network security and privacy challenges in smart vehicle-to-grid","volume":"24","author":"Saxena","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Wirel. Commun."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.3233\/JCS-2007-15103","article-title":"Securing vehicular ad hoc networks","volume":"15","author":"Raya","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3589","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2010.2051468","article-title":"An efficient pseudonymous authentication scheme with strong privacy preservation for vehicular communications","volume":"59","author":"Sun","year":"2010","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2615","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2016.2577018","article-title":"Lightweight authentication and privacy-preserving scheme for V2G connections","volume":"66","author":"Abdallah","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2526","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2017.2775248","article-title":"Privacy-preserving and lightweight key agreement protocol for V2G in the social Internet of Things","volume":"5","author":"Shen","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.1109\/TVT.2018.2880834","article-title":"Efficient, secure, and privacy-preserving PMIPv6 protocol for V2G networks","volume":"68","author":"Eiza","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101745","DOI":"10.1016\/j.adhoc.2018.08.015","article-title":"Pairing-based authentication protocol for V2G networks in smart grid","volume":"90","author":"Roman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ad Hoc Netw."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76812","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2019.2921399","article-title":"A dynamic privacy-preserving key management protocol for V2G in social internet of things","volume":"7","author":"Park","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1963","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2019.2932127","article-title":"A novel privacy-preserving authentication scheme for V2G networks","volume":"14","author":"Su","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101120","DOI":"10.1016\/j.segan.2023.101120","article-title":"Smart electric vehicles charging with centralised vehicle-to-grid capability for net-load variance minimisation under increasing EV and PV penetration levels","volume":"35","author":"Secchi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sustain. Energy Grids Netw."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1109\/TICPS.2023.3290539","article-title":"V2G-Auth: Lightweight Authentication and Key Agreement Protocol for V2G Environment leveraging Physically Unclonable Functions","volume":"1","author":"Reddy","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Cyber Phys. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"840","DOI":"10.1109\/TDSC.2016.2616861","article-title":"Security and privacy in decentralized energy trading through multi-signatures, blockchain and anonymous messaging streams","volume":"15","author":"Aitzhan","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Dependable Secur. Comput."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1109\/MCOM.2018.1700401","article-title":"Privacy-preserving and efficient aggregation based on blockchain for power grid communications in smart communities","volume":"56","author":"Guan","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Commun. Mag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garg, S., Kaur, K., Kaddoum, G., Gagnon, F., and Rodrigues, J.J. (2019, January 20\u201324). An efficient blockchain-based hierarchical authentication mechanism for energy trading in V2G environment. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE International Conference on Communications Workshops (ICC Workshops), Shanghai, China.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCW.2019.8756952"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3676","DOI":"10.1109\/JIOT.2018.2890213","article-title":"BBARS: Blockchain-based anonymous rewarding scheme for V2G networks","volume":"6","author":"Wang","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Internet Things J."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sysarc.2019.101636","article-title":"A blockchain-based certificateless public key signature scheme for vehicle-to-infrastructure communication in VANETs","volume":"99","author":"Ali","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Archit."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101958","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cose.2020.101958","article-title":"Efficient privacy-preserving authentication protocol using PUFs with blockchain smart contracts","volume":"97","author":"Patil","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Secur."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Miller, V.S. (1985, January 18\u201322). Use of elliptic curves in cryptography. Proceedings of the Conference on the Theory and Application of Cryptographic Techniques, Santa Barbara, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1007\/s102070100002","article-title":"The elliptic curve digital signature algorithm (ECDSA)","volume":"1","author":"Johnson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Secur."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Menezes, A. (2001). Evaluation of Security Level of Cryptography: The Elliptic Curve Discrete Logarithm Problem (ECDLP), University of Waterloo."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Boneh, D. (1998, January 21\u201325). The decision diffie-hellman problem. Proceedings of the International Algorithmic Number Theory Symposium, Portland, OR, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/BFb0054851"},{"key":"ref_28","first-page":"51","article-title":"Consortium blockchains: Overview, applications and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Dib","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Telecommun."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"3690","article-title":"Consortium blockchain for secure energy trading in industrial internet of things","volume":"14","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Ind. Inform."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Che, Z., Wang, Y., Zhao, J., Qiang, Y., Ma, Y., and Liu, J. (2019). A distributed energy trading authentication mechanism based on a consortium blockchain. Energies, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/en12152878"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1089\/big.2015.0056","article-title":"Visualizing dynamic bitcoin transaction patterns","volume":"4","author":"McGinn","year":"2016","journal-title":"Big Data"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallois, V., and Guenane, F.A. (2017, January 18\u201320). Bitcoin transaction: From the creation to validation, a protocol overview. Proceedings of the 2017 1st Cyber Security in Networking Conference (CSNet), Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.","DOI":"10.1109\/CSNET.2017.8241988"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Delgado-Segura, S., P\u00e9rez-Sola, C., Navarro-Arribas, G., and Herrera-Joancomart\u00ed, J. (2018, January 2). Analysis of the bitcoin utxo set. Proceedings of the Financial Cryptography and Data Security: FC 2018 International Workshops, BITCOIN, VOTING, and WTSC, Nieuwpoort, Cura\u00e7ao.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-58820-8_6"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1080\/23307706.2021.2021113","article-title":"A comprehensive survey on security issues in vehicle-to-grid networks","volume":"10","author":"Rajasekaran","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Control Decis."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2020.2966526","article-title":"Efficient certificateless aggregate signature with conditional privacy preservation in IoV","volume":"15","author":"Mei","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vallent, T.F., Hanyurwimfura, D., and Mikeka, C. (2021). Efficient certificate-less aggregate signature scheme with conditional privacy-preservation for vehicular ad hoc networks enhanced smart grid system. Sensors, 21.","DOI":"10.3390\/s21092900"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2101","DOI":"10.1109\/TIFS.2018.2810065","article-title":"Secure fine-grained access control and data sharing for dynamic groups in the cloud","volume":"13","author":"Xu","year":"2018","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Inf. Forensics Secur."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"48","article-title":"Network Security Vulnerabilities in Smart Vehicle-to-Grid Systems Identifying Threats and Proposing Robust Countermeasures","volume":"7","author":"Novak","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Artif. Intell. Mach. Learn. Manag."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/16\/3\/336\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:11:59Z","timestamp":1760105519000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/16\/3\/336"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]},"references-count":38,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["sym16030336"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym16030336","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-8994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,11]]}}}