{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,27]],"date-time":"2026-04-27T19:46:11Z","timestamp":1777319171012,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":27,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]],"date-time":"2025-04-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744156800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Young and Middle-aged Teachers Education and Research Project (Science and Technology) of Fujian Province","award":["JAT210022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JAT210022"]}]},{"name":"the Young and Middle-aged Teachers Education and Research Project (Science and Technology) of Fujian Province","award":["GXRC-21052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GXRC-21052"]}]},{"name":"the Young and Middle-aged Teachers Education and Research Project (Science and Technology) of Fujian Province","award":["52205185"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52205185"]}]},{"name":"the Starting Grants of Fuzhou University","award":["JAT210022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JAT210022"]}]},{"name":"the Starting Grants of Fuzhou University","award":["GXRC-21052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GXRC-21052"]}]},{"name":"the Starting Grants of Fuzhou University","award":["52205185"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52205185"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["JAT210022"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["JAT210022"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["GXRC-21052"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["GXRC-21052"]}]},{"name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","award":["52205185"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52205185"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>3D-Kagome lattice sandwich panels are mainly composed of upper and lower panels and a series of symmetrically and periodically arranged lattices, known for their excellent high specific stiffness, high specific strength, and energy absorption capacity. The inherent geometrical symmetry of the 3D-Kagome lattice plays a crucial role in achieving superior mechanical stability and load distribution efficiency. This structural symmetry enhances the uniformity of stress distribution, making it highly suitable for automotive vibration suppression, such as battery protection for electric vehicles. In this study, a polyurethane foam-filled, symmetry-enhanced 3D-Kagome sandwich panel is designed following an optimization of the lattice structure. A novel fabrication method combining precision wire-cutting, interlocking core assembly, and in situ foam filling is employed to ensure a high degree of integration and manufacturability of the composite structure. Its mechanical properties and energy absorption characteristics are systematically evaluated through a series of experimental tests, including quasi-static compression, three-point bending, and low-speed impact. The study analyzes the effects of core height on the structural stiffness, strength, and energy absorption capacity under varying loads, elucidating the failure mechanisms inherent to the symmetrical lattice sandwich configurations. The results show that the foam-filled sandwich panels exhibit significant improvements in mechanical performance compared to the unfilled ones. Specifically, the panels with core heights of 15 mm, 20 mm, and 25 mm demonstrate increases in bending stiffness of 47.3%, 53.5%, and 51.3%, respectively, along with corresponding increases in bending strength of 45.5%, 53.1%, and 50.9%. The experimental findings provide a fundamental understanding of foam-filled lattice sandwich structures, offering insights into their structural optimization for lightweight energy-absorbing applications. This study establishes a foundation for the development of advanced crash-resistant materials for automotive, aerospace, and protective engineering applications. This work highlights the structural advantages and crashworthiness potential of foam-filled Kagome sandwich panels, providing a promising foundation for their application in electric vehicle battery enclosures, aerospace impact shields, and advanced protective systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym17040571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,10]],"date-time":"2025-04-10T07:41:51Z","timestamp":1744270911000},"page":"571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Experimental Investigation into the Mechanical Performance of Foam-Filled 3D-Kagome Lattice Sandwich Panels"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3375-4939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zhangbin","family":"Wu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Qiuyu","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Chao","family":"Chai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"China State Shipbuilding Corporation Fenxi Heavy Industry Co., Ltd., Taiyuan 030027, China"}]},{"given":"Mao","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Zi","family":"Ye","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Yunzhe","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Canhui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]},{"given":"Fuqiang","family":"Lai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"},{"name":"Institute of Metal Rubber & Vibration Noise, Fuzhou University, Fuzhou 350116, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"395","article-title":"Ballistic performance of lightweight cellular sandwich structure: A review","volume":"53","author":"Cui","year":"2023","journal-title":"Adv. Mech."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112773","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2024.112773","article-title":"Advances in 3D printed periodic lattice structures for energy research: Energy storage, transport and conversion applications","volume":"239","author":"Khan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2015.12.058","article-title":"Failure and energy absorption characteristics of advanced 3D truss core structures","volume":"92","author":"Ullah","year":"2016","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mechmat.2018.12.006","article-title":"Mechanical properties of a node-interlocking pyramidal welded tube lattice sandwich structure","volume":"129","author":"Bin","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mech. Mater."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaharia, S.M., Enescu, L.A., and Pop, M.A. (2020). Mechanical Performances of Lightweight Sandwich Structures Produced by Material Extrusion-Based Additive Manufacturing. Polymers, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/polym12081740"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hu, C.L., Hong, W.H., Xu, X.J., Tang, S.F., Du, S.Y., and Cheng, H.M. (2017). Sandwich-structured C\/C-SiC composites fabricated by electromagnetic coupling chemical vapor infiltration. Sci. Rep., 7.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-13569-9"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compositesb.2019.107496","article-title":"A review of recent research on bio-inspired structures and materials for energy absorption applications","volume":"181","author":"Ha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Compos. Part B-Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.01.059","article-title":"Mechanical properties and energy absorption capability of functionally graded F2BCC lattice fabricated by SLM","volume":"144","author":"Masood","year":"2018","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conbuildmat.2018.09.166","article-title":"The use of polyurethane for structural and infrastructural engineering applications: A state-of-the-art review","volume":"190","author":"Somarathna","year":"2018","journal-title":"Constr. Build. Mater."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6981","DOI":"10.1016\/S0020-7683(03)00349-4","article-title":"On the performance of truss panels with Kagome cores","volume":"40","author":"Wang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijsolstr.2005.07.011","article-title":"Mechanical behavior of sandwich panels with tetrahedral and Kagome truss cores fabricated from wires","volume":"43","author":"Lim","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Solids Struct."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107541","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2018.107541","article-title":"Performance of strut-reinforced Kagome truss core structure under compression fabricated by selective laser melting","volume":"164","author":"Gautam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"445","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2009.08.029","article-title":"A parametric study on compressive characteristics of wire-woven bulk Kagome truss cores","volume":"92","author":"Lee","year":"2010","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"707","DOI":"10.1016\/j.matdes.2013.10.035","article-title":"Bending response of sandwich panels with discontinuous wire-woven metal cores","volume":"55","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Mater. Des."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mspro.2014.07.567","article-title":"Compressive strength of wire-woven bulk Kagome with various orientations","volume":"4","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mspro.2014.07.597","article-title":"Effects of gaps between discontinuous wire woven Kagome cores upon bending of sandwich panels","volume":"4","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Mater. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Li, M.Z., and Kang, K.J. (2024, January 6\u20139). The compressive characteristics of the convex type wire-woven bulk Kagome truss PCM. Proceedings of the KSME Conference, Jeju, Republic of Korea."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmecsci.2018.10.005","article-title":"Mechanical behavior of Microlattice with or without in-plane elements added on the outer faces","volume":"149","author":"Choi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Mech. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115832","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compstruct.2022.115832","article-title":"Size effect of composite Kagome honeycomb sandwich structure reinforced with PMI foams under quasi-static bending: Experiment tests and numerical analysis","volume":"296","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"Compos. Struct."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijimpeng.2023.104737","article-title":"Dynamic response and failure of CFRP Kagome lattice core sandwich panels subjected to low- velocity impact","volume":"181","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Impact Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.istruc.2024.107533","article-title":"Reliability-based topology optimization of imperfect structures considering uncertainty fo load position","volume":"69","author":"Habashneh","year":"2024","journal-title":"Structures"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2011). Standard Test Method for Flatwise Compressive Properties of Sandwich Cores (Standard No. ASTM C365\/C365M-11). Available online: https:\/\/www.antpedia.com\/standard\/6278552.html."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"(2011). Standard Test Method for Core Shear Properties of Sandwich Constructions by Beam Flexure (Standard No. ASTM C393\/C393M-11). Available online: https:\/\/www.antpedia.com\/standard\/6263326.html."},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"(2005). Standard Test Method for Measuring the Damage Resistance of a Fiber-Reinforced Polymer Matrix Composite to a Drop-Weight Impact Event (Standard No. ASTM D7136\/D7136M-05). Available online: https:\/\/www.antpedia.com\/standard\/5704063.html."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Zhu, P.Q. (2021). Research on The Collision Protection of Electric Vehicle Battery Box Based on The New Lattice Sandwich Structure. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Harbin Institute of Technology]."},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Zhang, H. (2018). Structural Analysis and Optimization of Foam-Filled Corrugated Sandwich Panels. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Jilin University]."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Pei, Y.Y. (2022). Design and Mechanical Properties of Kagome Lattice Sandwich Composite Structure. [Master\u2019s Thesis, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences]."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/17\/4\/571\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:11:45Z","timestamp":1760029905000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/17\/4\/571"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]},"references-count":27,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["sym17040571"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym17040571","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2073-8994","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,9]]}}}