{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:07:53Z","timestamp":1760058473498,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":39,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]],"date-time":"2025-04-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1744329600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Characteristic Laboratory of Higher Education Institutions in Shandong Province: Intelligent manufacturing engineering characteristic laboratory","award":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"]}]},{"name":"New Energy Vehicle Intelligent Network Technology Shandong Province Higher Education Institutions Future Industry Engineering Research Centre Project","award":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["51508304","PT2025 KJS002","PT2025KJS003"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The motor drive system is pivotal for vehicles, particularly in new energy applications. However, conventional hybrid systems, which combine generator sets and single batteries in parallel configurations, fail to meet the operational demands of large pure electric mining dump trucks under fluctuating power requirements\u2014such as high reserve power during acceleration and robust energy recovery during braking. Traditional single-motor configurations struggle to balance low-speed, high-torque operations and high-speed driving within cost-effective ranges, often necessitating oversized motors or multi-gear transmissions. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a dual-motor symmetric powertrain configuration with a seven-speed gearbox, tailored to the extreme operating conditions of mining environments. By integrating a high-speed, low-torque motor and a low-speed, high-torque motor through dynamic power coupling, the system optimizes energy utilization while ensuring sufficient driving force. The simulation results under extreme conditions (e.g., 33% gradient climbs and heavy-load downhill braking) demonstrate that the proposed configuration achieves a peak torque of 267 kNm (200% improvement over single-motor systems) and a system efficiency of 92.4% (vs. 41.7% for diesel counterparts). Additionally, energy recovery efficiency reaches 85%, reducing energy consumption to 4.75 kWh\/km (83% lower than diesel trucks) and life cycle costs by 38% (USD 5.34\/km). Field tests in open-pit mines validate the reliability of the design, with less than a 1.5% deviation in simulated versus actual performance. The modular architecture supports scalability for 60\u2013400-ton mining trucks, offering a replicable solution for zero-emission mining operations in high-altitude regions, such as Tibet\u2019s lithium mines, and advancing global efforts toward carbon neutrality.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym17040583","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]],"date-time":"2025-04-11T05:38:26Z","timestamp":1744349906000},"page":"583","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Dual-Motor Symmetric Configuration and Powertrain Matching for Pure Electric Mining Dump Trucks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"17","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5075-4087","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yingshuai","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong Huayu University of Technology, Dezhou 253034, China"}]},{"given":"Chenxing","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Lab of Auto Performance and Emission Test, School of Mechanical and Vehicular Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Jianwei","family":"Tan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Lab of Auto Performance and Emission Test, School of Mechanical and Vehicular Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China"}]},{"given":"Yunli","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Mechanical Engineering, Shandong Huayu University of Technology, Dezhou 253034, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.18196\/jrc.v5i1.20519","article-title":"Adaptive Cruise Control of the Autonomous Vehicle Based on Sliding Mode Controller Using Arduino and Ultrasonic Sensor","volume":"5","author":"Alika","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Robot. Control JRC"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"125","article-title":"An Energy-Efficient Merge-Aware Cruise Control Method for Connected Electric Vehicles","volume":"13","author":"Baby","year":"2024","journal-title":"SAE Int. J. Electrified Veh."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1009","DOI":"10.1177\/03611981231223982","article-title":"Effects of Adaptive Cruise Control System on Traffic Flow and Safety Considering Various Combinations of Front Truck and Rear Passenger Car Situations","volume":"2678","author":"Bai","year":"2024","journal-title":"Transp. Res. Rec."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"446","DOI":"10.1007\/s12555-022-0389-9","article-title":"A Novel Stochastic Model Predictive Control Considering Predictable Disturbance with Application to Personalized Adaptive Cruise Control","volume":"22","author":"Qiao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Control Autom. Syst."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4518","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3358797","article-title":"Energy-Saving Driving Assistance System Integrated with Predictive Cruise Control for Electric Vehicles","volume":"9","author":"Hong","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kavas-Torris, O., and Guvenc, L. (2024). Modelling and Analysis of a Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) Algorithm for Fuel Economy. R. SAE Technical Paper, SAE International.","DOI":"10.4271\/2024-01-2564"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yan, Y., and Zheng, H. (2024). Enhancing Lateral Stability in Adaptive Cruise Control: A TS Fuzzy Model-Based Strategy. R. SAE Technical Paper, SAE International.","DOI":"10.4271\/2024-01-1962"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4505","DOI":"10.1177\/09544070231198278","article-title":"Study on multi-objective adaptive cruise control of intelligent vehicle based on multi-mode switching","volume":"238","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Ragavendran, R., Kumar, M., and Bhavan, C. (2023, January 17\u201318). Modelling, Simulation and Virtual validation of Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) Algorithm based on Sensor Fusion. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Science, Engineering and Technology Practices for Sustainable Devel-opment, ICSETPSD, Coimbatore, India."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, F., Li, H., Lv, M., Hu, J., Zhou, Q., and Ghosh, B.K. (2024). Enhancing Safety in Nonlinear Systems: Design and Stability Analysis of Adaptive Cruise Control. arXiv.","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3388425"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6683","DOI":"10.1002\/rnc.7204","article-title":"Nonlinear predictor-feedback cooperative adaptive cruise control of vehicles with nonlinear dynamics and input delay","volume":"34","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Robust Nonlinear Control"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yang, M., Rawoof, M.B.M., and Kan, X.D. (2024, January 24\u201327). Modeling Commercial Adaptive Cruise Control (ACC) on Multi-Lane Facilities by Incorporating Receiving-Lane-Change Car-Following. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE 27th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Edmonton, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC58415.2024.10919690"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aej.2023.09.009","article-title":"Enhancing time-domain performance of vehicle cruise control system by using a multi-strategy improved RUN optimizer","volume":"80","author":"Izci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Alex. Eng. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1007\/s44196-023-00304-8","article-title":"Revolutionizing vehicle cruise control: An elite opposition-based pattern search mechanism augmented INFO algorithm for enhanced controller design","volume":"16","author":"Ekinci","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Comput. Intell. Syst."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5059","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3339125","article-title":"Adaptive leading cruise control in mixed traffic considering human behavioral diversity","volume":"25","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3098","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3306341","article-title":"Multi-sensor environmental perception and adaptive cruise control of intelligent vehicles using kalman filter","volume":"25","author":"Wei","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117757","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2023.117757","article-title":"Target speed computation through predictive cruise control for vehicles energy consumption reduction","volume":"298","author":"Polverino","year":"2023","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conengprac.2022.105383","article-title":"A hybrid stochastic model predictive design approach for cooperative adaptive cruise control in connected vehicle applications","volume":"130","author":"Mosharafian","year":"2023","journal-title":"Control Eng. Pract."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117883","DOI":"10.1016\/j.enconman.2023.117883","article-title":"Predictive cruise control for hybrid electric vehicles based on hierarchical convex optimization","volume":"299","author":"Gao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Energy Convers. Manag."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ren, P., Jiang, H., and Xu, X. (2023). Research on a Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control (CACC) Algorithm Based on Frenet Frame with Lateral and Longitudinal Directions. Sensors, 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/s23041888"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Basargan, H., Mih\u00e1ly, A., and G\u00e1sp\u00e1r, P. (2023). Intelligent road-adaptive semi-active suspension and integrated cruise control. Machines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/machines11020204"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chu, L., Li, H., and Xu, Y. (2023). Research on Longitudinal Control Algorithm of Adaptive Cruise Control System for Pure Electric Vehicles. World Electr. Veh. J., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/wevj14020032"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"128","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2022.2042568","article-title":"Enabling cooperative adaptive cruise control on strings of vehicles with heterogeneous dynamics and powertrains","volume":"61","author":"Flores","year":"2023","journal-title":"Veh. Syst. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107383","DOI":"10.1016\/j.est.2023.107383","article-title":"Constrained hybrid optimal model predictive control for intelligent electric vehicle adaptive cruise using energy storage management strategy","volume":"65","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Energy Storage"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3975","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2024.3349517","article-title":"A Two-Condition Continuous Asymmetric Car-Following Model for Adaptive Cruise Control Vehicles","volume":"9","author":"Shang","year":"2024","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4862","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3338698","article-title":"Energy-Efficient Cooperative Adaptive Cruise Control for Electric Vehicle Platooning","volume":"25","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Filabadi, M.M., and Hashemi, E. (June, January 31). Distributed Robust Control Framework for Adaptive Cruise Control Systems. Proceedings of the American Control Conference (ACC), San Diego, CA, USA."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111125","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ymssp.2024.111125","article-title":"Multi-objective dynamic coordinated Adaptive Cruise Control for intelligent electric vehicle with sensors fusion","volume":"209","author":"Wu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Mech. Syst. Signal Process."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zare, A., Shang, M., and Kan, X.D. (2023, January 24\u201328). Modeling Car-Following Behavior of Electric Adaptive Cruise Control Vehicles Using Experimental Testbed Data. Proceedings of the IEEE 26th International Conference on Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITSC), Bilbao, Spain.","DOI":"10.1109\/ITSC57777.2023.10422675"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6131","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfranklin.2023.02.003","article-title":"Cruise controllers for lane-free ring-roads based on control Lyapunov functions","volume":"360","author":"Theodosis","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Frankl. Inst."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6796","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2023.3341834","article-title":"Predictive Cruise Cloud Control Scheme Design on Notable Vehicles\u2014Under the Perspective of Cyber-Physical Systems","volume":"25","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57","DOI":"10.1080\/15472450.2021.1985490","article-title":"Stabilizing mixed cooperative adaptive cruise control traffic flow to balance capacity using car-following model","volume":"27","author":"Qin","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4094","DOI":"10.1109\/TIV.2023.3272660","article-title":"The Unscented Kalman Filter for Nonlinear Parameter Identification of Adaptive Cruise Control Systems","volume":"8","author":"Ampountolas","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Intell. Veh."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"606","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2023.3269059","article-title":"Addressing a Collaborative Maintenance Planning Using Multiple Operators by a Multi-Objective Metaheuristic Algorithm","volume":"22","author":"Tian","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"09544070231213782","article-title":"Coordinated adaptive cruise control with integration of driving behaviors based on prediction for surrounding vehicles status","volume":"239","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Inst. Mech. Eng. Part D J. Automob. Eng."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3504","DOI":"10.1007\/s11431-023-2459-8","article-title":"Energy-optimized adaptive cruise control strategy design at intersection for electric vehicles based on speed planning","volume":"66","author":"Pan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. China Technol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2154","DOI":"10.1049\/itr2.12384","article-title":"Centralized model-predictive cooperative and adaptive cruise control of automated vehicle platoons in urban traffic environments","volume":"17","author":"Klingbeil","year":"2023","journal-title":"IET Intell. Transp. Syst."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tian, G.D., Sheng, H.W., Zhang, L.L., Zhang, H.H., Fathollahi-Fard, A.M., Zhang, X., and Feng, Y. (2024). Enhancing End-of-Life Product Recyclability through Modular Design and Social Engineering Optimiser. Int. J. Prod. Res., 1\u201319.","DOI":"10.1080\/00207543.2024.2424970"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1109\/TASE.2023.3301237","article-title":"A hybrid QFD-based human-centric decision making approach of disassembly schemes under interval 2-tuple q-rung orthopair fuzzy sets","volume":"22","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Autom. Sci. Eng."}],"container-title":["Symmetry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/17\/4\/583\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:12:43Z","timestamp":1760029963000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2073-8994\/17\/4\/583"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]]},"references-count":39,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["sym17040583"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/sym17040583","relation":{},"ISSN":["2073-8994"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2073-8994"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,11]]}}}