{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,14]],"date-time":"2026-04-14T23:37:16Z","timestamp":1776209836281,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":353,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]],"date-time":"2010-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1269475200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/3.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Symmetry"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Fluctuating asymmetry consists of random deviations from perfect symmetry in populations of organisms. It is a measure of developmental noise, which reflects a population\u2019s average state of adaptation and coadaptation. Moreover, it increases under both environmental and genetic stress, though responses are often inconsistent. Researchers base studies of fluctuating asymmetry upon deviations from bilateral, radial, rotational, dihedral, translational, helical, and fractal symmetries. Here, we review old and new methods of measuring fluctuating asymmetry, including measures of dispersion, landmark methods for shape asymmetry, and continuous symmetry measures. We also review the theory, developmental origins, and applications of fluctuating asymmetry, and attempt to explain conflicting results. In the process, we present examples from the literature, and from our own research at \u201cEvolution Canyon\u201d and elsewhere.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/sym2020466","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]],"date-time":"2010-03-25T12:20:28Z","timestamp":1269519628000},"page":"466-540","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":316,"title":["Fluctuating Asymmetry: Methods, Theory, and Applications"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"2","author":[{"given":"John H.","family":"Graham","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, Berry College, Mount Berry, Georgia 30149, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Shmuel","family":"Raz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Evolutionary and Environmental Biology, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel"},{"name":"Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hagit","family":"Hel-Or","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Computer Science, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905 Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Eviatar","family":"Nevo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Evolution, University of Haifa, Haifa 31905, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2010,3,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weyl, H. 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