{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,31]],"date-time":"2025-12-31T18:57:18Z","timestamp":1767207438814,"version":"build-2238731810"},"reference-count":101,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,23]],"date-time":"2022-03-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1647993600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The transdisciplinary importance of distinctions is well-established as foundational to such diverse phenomena as recognition, identification, individual and social identity, marginalization, externalities, boundaries, concept formation, etc., and synonymous general ideas, such as thingness, concepts, nodes, objects, etc. Cabrera provides a formal description of and predictions for identity\u2013other distinctions (D) or \u201cD-rule\u201d as one of four universals for the organization of information that is foundational to systems and systems thinking, as well as the consilience of knowledge. This paper presents seven empirical studies in which (unless otherwise noted) software was used to create an experiment for subjects to complete a task and\/or answer a question. The samples varied for each study (ranging from N = 407 to N = 34,398) and were generalizable to a normal distribution of the US population. These studies support\u2014with high statistical significance\u2014the predictions made by DSRP theory regarding identity\u2013other distinctions including its: universality as an observable phenomenon in both mind (cognitive complexity) and nature (ontological complexity) (i.e., parallelism); internal structures and dynamics; mutual dependencies on other universals (i.e., relationships, systems, and perspectives); role in structural predictions; and efficacy as a metacognitive skill. In conclusion, these data suggest the observable and empirical existence, universality, efficacy, and parallelism (between cognitive and ontological complexity) of identity\u2013other distinctions (D).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems10020041","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,23]],"date-time":"2022-03-23T22:08:06Z","timestamp":1648073286000},"page":"41","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["Distinctions Organize Information in Mind and Nature: Empirical Findings of Identity\u2013Other Distinctions (D) in Cognitive and Material Complexity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3981-1110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derek","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell Institute for Public Affairs, SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"},{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2863-7885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Laura","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell Institute for Public Affairs, SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"},{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4104-6948","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elena","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,3,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Spencer-Brown, G. (1969). Laws of Form, Allen & Unwin."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Krauss, L. (2021, December 07). Why Is There Something Instead of Nothing? [Video]. Available online: https:\/\/www.scientificamerican.com\/article\/why-is-there-something-instead-of-nothing-video\/."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Euler, L. (1741). 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