{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T03:01:58Z","timestamp":1760151718097,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]],"date-time":"2022-04-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1649116800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Part-whole Systems (S) structure is foundational to a diverse array of phenomena such as belonging and containment, networks, statistics, reductionism, holism, etc. and is extremely similar if not synonymous with sets, sorts, groups, combinations and combinatorics, clusters, etc. In Cabrera (1998), part-whole Systems (S) or \u201cS-rule\u201d is established as one of four universals for the organization of information and thus is foundational to systems and systems thinking as well as the consilience of knowledge. In this paper, seven empirical studies are presented in which (unless otherwise noted) subjects completed a task. Ranging from n = 407 to n = 34,398, the sample sizes vary for each study but are generalizeable to a normal distribution of the US population. With high statistical significance, the results of these studies support the predictions made by DSRP Theory regarding part-whole Systems (a.k.a., \u201cS-rule\u201d) including: the universality of S-rule as an observable phenomenon in both mind (cognitive complexity) and nature (ontological complexity) (i.e., parallelism); the internal structures and dynamics of S-rule; S-rule\u2019s mutual dependencies on other universals of DSRP (Distinctions, Systems, Relationships, and Perspectives (i.e., Distinctions, Relationships, and Perspectives); the role S-rule plays in making structural predictions; and, S-rule\u2019s efficacy as a metacognitive skill. In conclusion, these data suggest the observable and empirical existence, universality, efficacy, and parallelism (between cognitive and ontological complexity) of part-whole Systems (S).<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems10020044","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]],"date-time":"2022-04-05T11:26:07Z","timestamp":1649157967000},"page":"44","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Systems Organize Information in Mind and Nature: Empirical Findings of Part-Whole Systems (S) in Cognitive and Material Complexity"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"10","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3981-1110","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Derek","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell Institute for Public Affairs and SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"},{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab., Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Laura","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jeb E. Brooks School of Public Policy, Cornell Institute for Public Affairs and SC Johnson College of Business, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"},{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab., Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Elena","family":"Cabrera","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cabrera Research Lab., Ithaca, NY 14850, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,5]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"409","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.98.3.409","article-title":"The adaptive nature of human categorization","volume":"98","author":"Anderson","year":"1991","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Mooney, R.L. (1951). 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