{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T03:17:03Z","timestamp":1779333423604,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,19]],"date-time":"2023-03-19T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1679184000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>In this paper, we aimed to demonstrate how to engineer Internet of Things (IoT)-based open multiagent systems (MASs). Specifically, we put forward an IoT\/MAS architectural framework, along with a case study within the important and challenging-to-engineer vehicle-to-grid (V2G) and grid-to-vehicle (G2V) energy transfer problem domain. The proposed solution addresses the important non-functional requirement of scalability. To this end, we employed an open multiagent systems architecture, arranging agents as modular microservices that were interconnected via a multi-protocol Internet of Things platform. Our approach allows agents to view, offer, interconnect, and re-use their various strategies, mechanisms, or other algorithms as modular smart grid services, thus enabling their seamless integration into our MAS architecture, and enabling the solution of the challenging V2G\/G2V problem. At the same time, our IoT-based implementation offers both direct applicability in real-world settings and advanced analytics capabilities via enabling digital twin models for smart grid ecosystems. We have described our MAS\/IoT-based architecture in detail; validated its applicability via simulation experiments involving large numbers of heterogeneous agents, operating and interacting towards effective V2G\/G2V; and studied the performance of various electric vehicle charging scheduling and V2G\/G2V-incentivising electricity pricing algorithms. To engineer our solution, we used ASEME, a state-of-the-art methodology for multiagent systems using the Internet of Things. Our solution can be employed for the implementation of real-world prototypes to deliver large-scale V2G\/G2V services, as well as for the testing of various schemes in simulation mode.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems11030157","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,20]],"date-time":"2023-03-20T03:09:37Z","timestamp":1679281777000},"page":"157","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Engineering IoT-Based Open MAS for Large-Scale V2G\/G2V"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4957-9194","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikolaos I.","family":"Spanoudakis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Production Engineering & Management, Technical University of Crete, 73100 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0785-4036","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Charilaos","family":"Akasiadis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Informatics & Telecommunications, National Centre for Scientific Research \u2018Demokritos\u2019, 15341 Athens, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Georgios","family":"Iatrakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 73100 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0716-2972","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Georgios","family":"Chalkiadakis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical & Computer Engineering, Technical University of Crete, 73100 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,3,19]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.erss.2017.09.024","article-title":"Energy democracy: Goals and policy instruments for sociotechnical transitions","volume":"33","author":"Burke","year":"2017","journal-title":"Energy Res. 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