{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T09:55:36Z","timestamp":1779011736711,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1699488000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Taiwan","award":["111-2410-H-007-009"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["111-2410-H-007-009"]}]},{"name":"National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Taiwan","award":["112-2410-H-007-043-MY2"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["112-2410-H-007-043-MY2"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Virtual reality (VR) is a 3D space created by computer graphics technology and immersive devices. In addition to providing a new visual experience, users can also interact with others in the virtual world to address any of their needs. In recent years, the application of virtual reality in the field of education has attracted the attention of more and more people. This study combined virtual reality and concepts of spatial memory in wayfinding and memory palace to develop a VR memory maze learning system based on the seven large-scale expedition voyages of Zheng He (1405\u20131433) in the early Ming Dynasty of imperial China. The objective is to improve memory and efficiency in learning social science by correlating spatial information and organizational skills in the virtual environment. A teaching experiment has been conducted to explore its impacts on learning effectiveness, learning motivation, and cognitive load, as well as learners\u2019 technology acceptance of the VR system. The analysis results indicate that using the VR system for learning social science can improve learning effectiveness; it can also increase learning motivation and reduce cognitive load. The questionnaire results of the technology acceptance model analysis show that most learners were satisfied with various aspects of this system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems11110545","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]],"date-time":"2023-11-09T10:19:27Z","timestamp":1699525167000},"page":"545","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Development of a Virtual Reality Memory Maze Learning System for Application in Social Science Education"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"11","author":[{"given":"Wernhuar","family":"Tarng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Learning Sciences and Technologies, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yu-Chieh","family":"Su","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Learning Sciences and Technologies, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4745-9751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kuo-Liang","family":"Ou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Learning Sciences and Technologies, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu 300044, Taiwan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Arthur, P., and Passini, R. (1992). Wayfinding: People, Signs, and Architecture, McGraw-Hill Ryerson."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Golledge, R.G. (1999). Wayfinding Behavior: Cognitive Mapping and Other Spatial Processes, Johns Hopkins University Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gluck, M. (1990). Making Sense of Human Wayfinding: A Review of Cognitive and Linguistic Knowledge for Personal Navigation with a New Research Direction, Myke Gluck School of Information Studies, Syracuse University.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-2606-9_9"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Gibson, D. (2009). The Wayfinding Handbook: Information Design for Public Places, Princeton Architectural Press."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Darken, R.P., and Sibert, J.L. (1996, January 13\u201318). Wayfinding strategies and behaviors in large virtual worlds. Proceedings of the ACM CHI 96, Vancouver, BC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1145\/238386.238459"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klippel, A. (2003). Wayfinding Choremes: Conceptualizing Wayfinding and Route Direction Elements, University of Bremen.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-39923-0_20"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"671","DOI":"10.1162\/105474699566558","article-title":"A theoretical model of wayfinding in virtual environments: Proposed strategies for navigational aiding","volume":"8","author":"Chen","year":"1999","journal-title":"Presence"},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Kolsch, Y.M., and Kuhn, M.H. (2014). Handbook of Virtual Environments, Wiley."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1145\/270950.270979","article-title":"Navigation in electronic worlds: A CHI 97 workshop","volume":"29","author":"Jul","year":"1997","journal-title":"SIGCHI Bull."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1037\/h0061626","article-title":"Cognitive maps in rats and men","volume":"55","author":"Tolman","year":"1948","journal-title":"Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Lynch, K. (1960). The Image of the City, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-2407(08)60007-5","article-title":"The Development of Spatial Representations of Large-Scale Environments","volume":"10","author":"Siegel","year":"1975","journal-title":"Adv. Child Dev. Behav."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pick, H.L., Van den Broek, P., and Knill, D.C. (1983). Spatial Orientation, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-9325-6"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-018-0346-3","article-title":"Virtual memory palaces: Immersion aids recall","volume":"23","author":"Krokos","year":"2018","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Yates, F.A. (1992). The Art of Memory, Random House."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"Harman, J. (2001). CHI \u201801 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors in Computing Systems, ACM."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1177\/0047239519881758","article-title":"Technological Enhancements of the Method of Loci for Facilitating Logographic Language Learning","volume":"48","author":"Gelsomini","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Educ. Technol. Syst."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1152\/advan.00092.2013","article-title":"The method of loci as a mnemonic device to facilitate learning in endocrinology leads to improvement in student performance as measured by assessments","volume":"38","author":"Qureshi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Adv. Physiol. Educ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruchkin, V., Wallonius, M., Odekvist, E., Kim, S., and Isaksson, J. (2022). Memory training with the method of loci for children and adolescents with ADHD\u2014A feasibility study. Appl. Neuropsychol. Child, 1\u20139.","DOI":"10.1080\/21622965.2022.2141120"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"912","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.323.7318.912","article-title":"Science, medicine, and the future: Virtual reality in surgery","volume":"323","author":"McCloy","year":"2001","journal-title":"Br. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1089\/109493102760147213","article-title":"Virtual Reality for Health Care: The Status of Research","volume":"5","author":"Riva","year":"2002","journal-title":"CyberPsychology Behav."},{"key":"ref_22","first-page":"314","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality simulations in nursing education","volume":"31","author":"Kilmon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nurs. Educ. Perspect."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Lopreiato, J.O., Downing, D., Gammon, W., Lioce, L., Sittner, B., Slot, V., Spain, A.E., and The Terminology & Concepts Working Group (2023, May 01). Healthcare Simulation Dictionary. Available online: http:\/\/www.ssih.org\/dictionary."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecns.2019.02.006","article-title":"A Call to Unify Definitions of Virtual Reality","volume":"31","author":"Farra","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Simul. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"1","article-title":"At the Heart of It All: The Concept of Presence","volume":"3","author":"Lombard","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comput. Commun."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2016.00074","article-title":"Enhancing Our Lives with Immersive Virtual Reality","volume":"3","author":"Slater","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Robot. AI"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burdea, G.C., and Coiffet, P. (2003). Virtual Reality Technology, Wiley-Interscience. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603322955950"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3549","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0138","article-title":"Place illusion and plausibility can lead to realistic behavior in immersive virtual environments","volume":"364","author":"Slater","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"223","article-title":"Virtual reality in psychotherapy: Review","volume":"21","author":"Riva","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology Behav. Soc. Netw."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freina, L., and Ott, M. (2015, January 23\u201324). A literature review on immersive virtual reality in education: State of the art and perspectives. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference eLearning and Software for Education (eLSE), Bucharest, Romania.","DOI":"10.12753\/2066-026X-15-020"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2012.10.005","article-title":"Analysis of peer learning behaviors using multiple representations in virtual reality and their impacts on geometry problem solving","volume":"62","author":"Hwang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1007\/s10916-018-0900-2","article-title":"Virtual Reality as an Educational and Training Tool for Medicine","volume":"42","author":"Izard","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Med. Syst."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sbspro.2011.04.278","article-title":"Virtual field trips in education of earth and environmental sciences","volume":"15","year":"2011","journal-title":"Procedia Soc. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1220","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.01220","article-title":"Influence of Landmarks on Wayfinding and Brain Connectivity in Immersive Virtual Reality Environment","volume":"8","author":"Sharma","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jecp.2017.08.012","article-title":"Using virtual environments to investigate wayfinding in 8- to 12-year-olds and adults","volume":"166","author":"Lingwood","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Exp. Child Psychol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1177\/19375867211067539","article-title":"Hospital Greenspaces and the Impacts on Wayfinding and Spatial Experience: An Explorative Experiment Through Immersive Virtual Environment (IVE) Techniques","volume":"15","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"HERD Health Environ. Res. Des. J."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1186\/1743-0003-10-17","article-title":"Virtual reality in neurologic rehabilitation of spatial disorientation","volume":"10","author":"Kober","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Neuroeng. Rehabil."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1677","DOI":"10.1111\/jan.12945","article-title":"Wayfinding in ageing and Alzheimer\u2019s disease within a virtual senior residence: Study protocol","volume":"72","author":"Davis","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Adv. Nurs."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1007\/s41465-019-00141-8","article-title":"The Method of Loci in Virtual Reality: Explicit Binding of Objects to Spatial Contexts Enhances Subsequent Memory Recall","volume":"4","author":"Reggente","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Cogn. Enhanc."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Huttner, J., and Robra-Bissantz, S. (2017, January 10\u201312). An immersive memory palace: Supporting the method of loci with virtual reality. Proceedings of the 23rd Americas Conference on Information Systems, Boston, MA, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"941","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-022-00700-z","article-title":"Optimized virtual reality-based Method of Loci memorization techniques through increased immersion and effective memory palace designs: A feasibility study","volume":"27","author":"Moll","year":"2023","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"1","article-title":"Strategies for stimulating the motivation to learn","volume":"26","author":"Keller","year":"1987","journal-title":"Perf. Improv."},{"key":"ref_43","unstructured":"Stanton, N.A., Salmon, P.M., Rafferty, L.A., Walker, G.H., Baber, C., and Jenkins, D.P. (2005). Mental Workload Assessment Method. Human Factors Methods: A Practical Guide for Engineering and Design, Ashgate."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1540-5915.2008.00192.x","article-title":"Technology acceptance model 3 and a research agenda on interventions","volume":"39","author":"Venkatesh","year":"2008","journal-title":"Decis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1153","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-021-00513-6","article-title":"Cybersickness in current-generation virtual reality head-mounted displays: Systematic review and outlook","volume":"25","author":"Caserman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Virtual Real."}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/11\/11\/545\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T21:20:40Z","timestamp":1760131240000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/11\/11\/545"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11]]}},"alternative-id":["systems11110545"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems11110545","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-8954","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,9]]}}}