{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,28]],"date-time":"2026-08-28T09:58:24Z","timestamp":1787911104807,"version":"build-2784847793"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]],"date-time":"2025-02-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1739318400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The adoption of Industry 4.0 technologies supports the digital transformation of production processes, making them more efficient. This study examines how digital infrastructure, digital skills, and the use of cloud technologies influence labor productivity in European Union countries. Using econometric methods, including linear regressions and fixed-effects panel regressions, the analysis highlights the important role digital skills play in boosting productivity. It also identifies the adoption of cloud solutions as a catalyst for process efficiency, while widespread high-speed internet coverage supports the connectivity of smart systems. However, variations in the development of digital infrastructure and workforce readiness across EU member states present challenges to overall labor productivity. The study concludes that strategic investments in automation and digital infrastructure, along with improving the workforce\u2019s digital skills, are essential to making Industry 4.0 a key pillar of economic competitiveness. By examining how workforce digital skills and certain Industry 4.0 technologies affect labor productivity, this research adds valuable insights to the specialized literature.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13020113","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]],"date-time":"2025-02-12T04:37:04Z","timestamp":1739335024000},"page":"113","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["The Role of Digital Infrastructure and Skills in Enhancing Labor Productivity: Insights from Industry 4.0 in the European Union"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0247-0781","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ofelia Ema","family":"Aleca","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Management Information Systems Department, Faculty of Accounting and Management Information Systems, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 010552 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3405-7027","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florin","family":"Mihai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Management Information Systems Department, Faculty of Accounting and Management Information Systems, Bucharest University of Economic Studies, 010552 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hermann, M., Pentek, T., and Otto, B. (2016, January 5\u20138). Design Principles for Industrie 4.0 Scenarios. Proceedings of the 2016 49th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences (HICSS)\u2014IEEE, Koloa, HI, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/HICSS.2016.488"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s10845-018-1433-8","article-title":"Literature Review of Industry 4.0 and Related Technologies","volume":"31","author":"Oztemel","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Intell. Manuf."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102173","DOI":"10.1016\/j.technovation.2020.102173","article-title":"Internet of Things and Big Data as Enablers for Business Digitalization Strategies","volume":"98","author":"Sestino","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technovation"},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Schwab, K. (2017). The Fourth Industrial Revolution, Crown Business."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Brynjolfsson, E., and McAfee, A. (2014). The Second Machine Age: Work, Progress, and Prosperity in a Time of Brilliant Technologies, W.W. Norton & Co."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acemoglu, D., and Restrepo, P. (2018). Artificial Intelligence, Automation, and Work. The Economics of Artificial Intelligence: An Agenda, University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.3386\/w24196"},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2024, December 07). Eurostat Digital Economy and Society Statistics\u2014Households and Individuals. Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/statistics-explained\/index.php?title=Digital_economy_and_society_statistics_-_households_and_individuals."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-020-10047-y","article-title":"Industry 4.0 Technologies in Flexible Manufacturing for Sustainable Organizational Value: Reflections from a Multiple Case Study of Italian Manufacturers","volume":"25","author":"Margherita","year":"2020","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Front."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"254","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2016.08.019","article-title":"The Future of Employment: How Susceptible Are Jobs to Computerisation?","volume":"114","author":"Frey","year":"2017","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_10","unstructured":"McKinsey (2025, February 05). Global Institute Notes from the AI Frontier: Modeling the Impact of AI on the World Economy, Available online: https:\/\/www.mckinsey.com\/~\/media\/McKinsey\/Featured%20Insights\/Artificial%20Intelligence\/Notes%20from%20the%20frontier%20Modeling%20the%20impact%20of%20AI%20on%20the%20world%20economy\/MGI-Notes-from-the-AI-frontier-Modeling-the-impact-of-AI-on-the-world-economy-September-2018.ashx."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nuruzzaman Abir, A.Z.M. (2024, January 3\u20135). Industry 4.0 Technologies for a Data-Driven, Secure, Green and Circular Manufacturing Economy. Proceedings of the 2024 IEEE Green Technologies Conference (GreenTech), Springdale, AR, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/GreenTech58819.2024.10520440"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chauhan, S., Singh, R., Gehlot, A., Akram, S.V., Twala, B., and Priyadarshi, N. (2023). Digitalization of Supply Chain Management with Industry 4.0 Enabling Technologies: A Sustainable Perspective. Processes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pr11010096"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procir.2021.01.015","article-title":"A Quantitative Framework for Industry 4.0 Enabled Circular Economy","volume":"98","author":"Spaltini","year":"2021","journal-title":"Procedia CIRP"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petcu, M.A., Sobolevschi-David, M.-I., and Curea, S.C. (2024). Integrating Digital Technologies in Sustainability Accounting and Reporting: Perceptions of Professional Cloud Computing Users. Electronics, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics13142684"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"706","DOI":"10.1080\/02681102.2017.1336071","article-title":"The Impact of ICT on Labor Productivity in the EU","volume":"23","author":"Relich","year":"2017","journal-title":"Inf. Technol. Dev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tutak, M., and Brodny, J. (2022). Business Digital Maturity in Europe and Its Implication for Open Innovation. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/joitmc8010027"},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"European Commission (2024, December 07). European Skills Agenda. Available online: https:\/\/employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu\/policies-and-activities\/skills-and-qualifications\/european-skills-agenda_en."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"European Commission (2025, February 03). European Pillar of Social Rights\u2014Building a Fairer and More Inclusive European Union. Available online: https:\/\/employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu\/policies-and-activities\/european-pillar-social-rights-building-fairer-and-more-inclusive-european-union_en."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"European Commission (2024, December 07). European Social Fund. Available online: https:\/\/european-social-fund-plus.ec.europa.eu\/en."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1697","DOI":"10.1007\/s10796-022-10308-y","article-title":"Reskilling and Upskilling the Future-Ready Workforce for Industry 4.0 and Beyond","volume":"26","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Inf. Syst. Front."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1080\/13639080.2020.1858230","article-title":"The 4th Industrial Revolution\u2014Its Impact on Vocational Skills","volume":"34","author":"Windelband","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Educ. Work"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1452","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eap.2024.10.036","article-title":"The Impact of Digital Transformation on Labour Demand Quantity and Structure: Evidence from China","volume":"84","author":"Qin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Econ. Anal. Policy"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Becker, G.S. (1993). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special Reference to Education, University of Chicago Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.7208\/chicago\/9780226041223.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"221","DOI":"10.1016\/j.poetic.2006.05.004","article-title":"Digital Divide Research, Achievements and Shortcomings","volume":"34","year":"2006","journal-title":"Poetics"},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"623","article-title":"Digitalization, Industry Concentration, and Productivity in Germany","volume":"241","author":"Ferschli","year":"2021","journal-title":"Jahrb. Natl. Stat."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101095","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jjie.2020.101095","article-title":"Aging Labor, ICT Capital, and Productivity in Japan and Korea","volume":"58","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Jpn. Int. Econ."},{"key":"ref_27","first-page":"33","article-title":"The Impact of Digitalization on Labor Productivity Evolution: Evidence from China","volume":"16","author":"Song","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Hosp. Tour. Technol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.30525\/2256-0742\/2023-9-3-56-65","article-title":"Foreign Experience In Implementing Digital Education in The Context Of Digital Economy Transformation","volume":"9","author":"Voronkova","year":"2023","journal-title":"Balt. J. Econ. Stud."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brodny, J., and Tutak, M. (2022). Digitalization of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises and Economic Growth: Evidence for the EU-27 Countries. J. Open Innov. Technol. Mark. Complex., 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/joitmc8020067"},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"European Court of Auditors (2020). Digitising European Industry: An Ambitious Initiative Whose Success Depends on the Continued Commitment of the EU, Governments and Businesses, Special Report No 19\/2020, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_31","unstructured":"OECD (2020). OECD Digital Economy Outlook 2020, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yadla, L.L., Mudragada, R.A., Poka, H., and Vignesh, T. (2023, January 23\u201325). Smart Manufacturing In Industries Using Internet Of Things. Proceedings of the 2023 International Conference on Computer Communication and Informatics (ICCCI)\u2014IEEE, Coimbatore, India.","DOI":"10.1109\/ICCCI56745.2023.10128206"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.4028\/p-4HbPGf","article-title":"Enhancing Efficiency in Advanced Manufacturing through IoT Integration","volume":"11","author":"Zaidi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eng. Headw."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"McKinsey (2019). Global Institute Digital Manufacturing: Capturing Value and Resilience in Industry 4.0, McKinsey & Company."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1146","DOI":"10.1111\/ecin.12854","article-title":"Broadband Internet, Firm Performance, and Worker Welfare: Evidence and Mechanism","volume":"58","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Econ. Inq."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"986","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpolmod.2014.10.003","article-title":"Does the Internet Increase Labor Productivity? Evidence from a Cross-Country Dynamic Panel","volume":"36","author":"Najarzadeh","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Policy Model."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1007\/s11066-019-09135-2","article-title":"Internet Use and Labor Productivity Growth: Recent Evidence from the U.S. and Other OECD Countries","volume":"20","author":"Hsieh","year":"2019","journal-title":"NETNOMICS Econ. Res. Electron. Netw."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.14716\/ijtech.v11i6.4429","article-title":"Labor Productivity in the Digital Era: A Spatial-Temporal Analysis","volume":"11","author":"Varlamova","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Technol."},{"key":"ref_39","first-page":"1","article-title":"Impacts of the Digital Economy on Manufacturing in Emerging Asia","volume":"8","author":"Kim","year":"2019","journal-title":"Asian J. Innov. Policy"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"776","article-title":"An Analytic Study of The Relationship Between Internet Connectivity and Productivity in The Workplace","volume":"4","author":"Tripathy","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Inform. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1111\/dpr.12373","article-title":"Information and Communication Technology Adoption in Micro and Small Firms: Can Internet Access Improve Labour Productivity?","volume":"37","author":"Viollaz","year":"2019","journal-title":"Dev. Policy Rev."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S71","DOI":"10.1086\/261725","article-title":"Endogenous Technological Change","volume":"98","author":"Romer","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Polit. Econ."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0297.2011.02420.x","article-title":"Broadband Infrastructure and Economic Growth","volume":"121","author":"Czernich","year":"2011","journal-title":"Econ. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1007\/s00168-020-01015-0","article-title":"Broadband Metrics and Job Productivity: A Look at County-Level Data","volume":"66","author":"Gallardo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ann. Reg. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1080\/10438599.2015.1105547","article-title":"Broadband Connected Employees and Labour Productivity: A Comparative Analysis of 14 European Countries Based on Distributed Microdata Access","volume":"25","author":"Hagsten","year":"2016","journal-title":"Econ. Innov. New Technol."},{"key":"ref_46","unstructured":"Christensen, C. (1997). The Innovator\u2019s Dilemma: When New Technologies Cause Great Firms to Fail, Harvard Business School Press."},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Vuorikari, R., Kluzer, S., and Punie, Y. (2022). DigComp 2.2: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens\u2014With New Examples of Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes, Publications Office of the European Union."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1177\/0143831X211059227","article-title":"Institutional Complementarities and Technological Transformation: IVET Responsiveness to Industry 4.0\u2014Meeting Emerging Skill Needs in the European Steel Industry","volume":"44","author":"Antonazzo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Econ. Ind. Democr."},{"key":"ref_49","first-page":"622","article-title":"The Relationship Between Students\u2019 Digital Competency Skills and Adaptation to Industry 4.0 Learning Technologies","volume":"14","author":"Yaacob","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Acad. Res. Bus. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Assante, D., Caforio, A., Flamini, M., and Romano, E. (2019, January 8\u201311). Smart Education in the Context of Industry 4.0. Proceedings of the 2019 IEEE Global Engineering Education Conference (EDUCON)\u2014IEEE, Dubai, United Arab Emirates.","DOI":"10.1109\/EDUCON.2019.8725057"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"30","article-title":"Digital Leadership in the Era of Industry 4.0: A Comprehensive Literature Review","volume":"1","author":"Siregar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Educ. Eval. Policy Anal."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1649","DOI":"10.1108\/JEIM-01-2020-0010","article-title":"Understanding the Role of Employees in Digital Transformation: Conceptualization of Digital Literacy of Employees as a Multi-Dimensional Organizational Affordance","volume":"34","author":"Kozanoglu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Enterp. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cardoso, A., Pereira, M.S., S\u00e1, J.C., Powell, D.J., Faria, S., and Magalh\u00e3es, M. (2024). Digital Culture, Knowledge, and Commitment to Digital Transformation and Its Impact on the Competitiveness of Portuguese Organizations. Adm. Sci., 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/admsci14010008"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1016\/j.strueco.2023.04.011","article-title":"The Adoption of Digital Technologies: Investment, Skills, Work Organisation","volume":"66","author":"Cirillo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Struct. Chang. Econ. Dyn."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chieco.2024.102246","article-title":"How Digital Finance Shapes Residents\u2019 Health: Evidence from China","volume":"87","author":"Liao","year":"2024","journal-title":"China Econ. Rev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0266(199708)18:7<509::AID-SMJ882>3.0.CO;2-Z","article-title":"Dynamic Capabilities and Strategic Management","volume":"18","author":"Teece","year":"1997","journal-title":"Strateg. Manag. J."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102028","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijinfomgt.2019.10.013","article-title":"Examining the Impact of Cloud ERP on Sustainable Performance: A Dynamic Capability View","volume":"51","author":"Gupta","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.12958\/1817-3772-2023-4(74)-67-74","article-title":"The Economic Impact of Cloud Technologies on the Industry 4.0 Development","volume":"74","author":"Reznikov","year":"2023","journal-title":"Econ. Her. Donbas"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103603","DOI":"10.1016\/j.im.2022.103603","article-title":"Estimating the Impact of Cloud Computing on Firm Performance: An Empirical Investigation of Listed Firms","volume":"59","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inf. Manag."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109070","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpe.2023.109070","article-title":"The Impact of Intelligent Manufacturing on Labor Productivity: An Empirical Analysis of Chinese Listed Manufacturing Companies","volume":"267","author":"Zhu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Prod. Econ."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.telpol.2023.102681","article-title":"Informality and Aggregate Labor Productivity Growth: Does ICT Moderate the Relationship?","volume":"48","author":"Erumban","year":"2024","journal-title":"Telecommun. Policy"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"548","DOI":"10.1086\/227496","article-title":"The Economics of Organization: The Transaction Cost Approach","volume":"87","author":"Williamson","year":"1981","journal-title":"Am. J. Sociol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"386","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0335.1937.tb00002.x","article-title":"The Nature of the Firm","volume":"4","author":"Coase","year":"1937","journal-title":"Economica"},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Rogers, E. (1983). Diffusion of Innovations, Free Press. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Wooldridge, J.M. (2010). Econometric Analysis of Cross Section and Panel Data, MIT Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1214\/aoms\/1177703732","article-title":"Robust Estimation of a Location Parameter","volume":"35","author":"Huber","year":"1964","journal-title":"Ann. Math. Stat."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baltagi, B.H. (2021). Econometric Analysis of Panel Data, Springer International Publishing. Springer Texts in Business and Economics.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-53953-5"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arellano, M. (2003). Panel Data Econometrics, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/0199245282.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_69","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Gross Domestic Product at Market Prices, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/TEC00001."},{"key":"ref_70","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Employment and Activity, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/LFSI_EMP_A."},{"key":"ref_71","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Cloud Computing Services, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/ISOC_CICCE_USE."},{"key":"ref_72","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Broadband Internet Coverage by Technology, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/ISOC_CBT."},{"key":"ref_73","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Individuals\u2019 Level of Digital Skills, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/ISOC_SK_DSKL_I."},{"key":"ref_74","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Individuals Who Have Basic or Above Basic Overall Digital Skills, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/TEPSR_SP410."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Digital Intensity, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/ISOC_E_DII."},{"key":"ref_76","unstructured":"Eurostat (2025, January 03). Average Full Time Adjusted Salary per Employee, Available online: https:\/\/ec.europa.eu\/eurostat\/databrowser\/product\/page\/NAMA_10_FTE."}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/2\/113\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:31:54Z","timestamp":1760027514000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/2\/113"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2]]}},"alternative-id":["systems13020113"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems13020113","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-8954","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,12]]}}}