{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T00:53:45Z","timestamp":1760057625390,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"3","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740096000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["71831005","71502044"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["71831005","71502044"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The patent openness decisions of frontier enterprises and the consequent investment tendencies of laggard enterprises play a significant role in their profitability. Despite the benefits resulting from directly using open patents, in order to capture market share and surpass frontier enterprises, laggard enterprises must decide whether they are going to invest in R&amp;D or expansion. In this context, based on evolutionary game theory and the operational behaviors of both frontier and laggard enterprises, this study constructed a model of enterprise revenue under asymmetric competition, exploring the impact of patent openness with and without government subsidies on enterprise revenue. This study discovered that: (1) when the industry scale is small, frontier enterprises gain significant social effects through patent openness, while laggard enterprises invest in expansion; (2) as the industry scale gradually expands, frontier enterprises tend to prefer not to open their patents, and laggard enterprises gradually shift from imitation to independent innovation when the return on R&amp;D investment increases more than that on expansion investment; and (3) when the R&amp;D costs of laggard enterprises are high, frontier enterprises usually choose not to open their patents, forcing laggard enterprises to turn to investment in expansion. This allows frontier enterprises to reduce the losses from patent openness while enjoying the benefits of reduced industry production costs. This study provides new perspectives on patent openness and investment tendencies with the help of an evolutionary game mechanism and offers managerial policy recommendations.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13030146","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]],"date-time":"2025-02-21T09:26:32Z","timestamp":1740129992000},"page":"146","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Patent Openness Decisions and Investment Propensities of Frontier Enterprises in Asymmetric Competition"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Chen","family":"Liu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]},{"given":"Daiqing","family":"Yan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Economics and Administration, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai 200433, China"}]},{"given":"Zihao","family":"Song","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Economics and Administration, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai 200433, China"}]},{"given":"Gandang","family":"Shi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Public Economics and Administration, Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, Shanghai 200433, China"}]},{"given":"Wentao","family":"Zhan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"},{"name":"School of Business, Singapore University of Social Sciences, Singapore 599491, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Minghui","family":"Jiang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Management, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150001, China"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Andrews, D., Criscuolo, C., and Gal, P.N. (2015). Frontier Firms, Technology Diffusion and Public Policy: Micro Evidence from OECD Countries, OECD Publishing."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Berlingieri, G., Calligaris, S., Criscuolo, C., and Verlhac, R. (2020). Last but not least: Laggard firms, technology diffusion, and its structural and policy determinants. OECD Science, Technology and Industry Policy Papers, OECD Publishing. No. 86."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1108\/14601061111104715","article-title":"The Open Innovation Paradox: Knowledge Sharing and Protection in R&D Collaborations","volume":"14","author":"Bogers","year":"2010","journal-title":"Eur. J. Innov. Manag."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ji, Y., Yu, X., Sun, M., and Zhang, B. (2022). Exploring the Evolution and Determinants of Open Innovation: A Perspective from Patent Citations. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14031618"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.54691\/bcpbm.v23i.1366","article-title":"Research on the impact of Tesla\u2019s technology patent opening on China\u2019s new energy vehicle industry","volume":"23","author":"He","year":"2022","journal-title":"BCP Bus. Manag."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"386","article-title":"A Study of Patent Open Source Strategies Based on Open Innovation: The Case of Tesla","volume":"8","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Open J. Soc. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33375","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-24407-5","article-title":"The symmetric and asymmetric impacts of green energy, eco-innovation, and urbanization in explaining low-carbon economy for Pakistan","volume":"30","author":"Ullah","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haese, J., and Peukert, C. (2024). Open at the Core: Moving from Proprietary Technology to Building a Product on Open Source Software. SSRN.","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.4946238"},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Chinese Government Website (2024, July 15). China to Promote Efficient Operation of Patent Open License System. The State Council of the People\u2019s Republic of China, Available online: http:\/\/english.www.gov.cn\/news\/202407\/15\/content_WS6694e148c6d0868f4e8e92f6.html."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-6451.00174","article-title":"Some simple economics of open-source","volume":"50","author":"Lerner","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Ind. Econ."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee, K., Park, I., and Yoon, B. (2016). An approach for r&d partner selection in alliances between large companies, and small and medium enterprises (smes): Application of bayesian network and patent analysis. Sustainability, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/su8020117"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1352","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2016.03.019","article-title":"The paradox of openness revisited: Collaborative innovation and patenting by UK innovators","volume":"45","author":"Arora","year":"2016","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"914","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2016.01.017","article-title":"The impact of the timing of patents on innovation performance","volume":"45","author":"Kim","year":"2016","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Vicente, D.C.D.A. (2023). The Impact of Tesla\u2019s Patent Opening. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Roma Tre University]."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"122251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2022.122251","article-title":"Effect of an open patent pool strategy on technology innovation in terms of creating shared value","volume":"187","author":"Kwon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1111\/grow.12671","article-title":"The relationship between foreign direct investment and domestic entrepreneurship: The impact and scale of investments in China","volume":"54","author":"Thompson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Growth Change"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2013.07.016","article-title":"Sources of spillovers for imitation and innovation","volume":"43","author":"Cappelli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinteco.2008.06.007","article-title":"International spillovers and absorptive capacity: A cross-country cross-sector analysis based on patents and citations","volume":"76","author":"Mancusi","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Int. Econ."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123529","DOI":"10.1016\/j.techfore.2024.123529","article-title":"Institutional forces, leapfrogging effects, and innovation status: Evidence from the adoption of a continuously evolving technology in small organizations","volume":"206","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technol. Forecast. Soc. Change"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"693","DOI":"10.1007\/s10961-021-09912-y","article-title":"Catching up in clean energy technologies: A patent analysis","volume":"48","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Technol. Transf."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijindorg.2009.07.008","article-title":"Patents, imitation and licensing in an asymmetric dynamic R&D race","volume":"28","author":"Fershtman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Int. J. Ind. Organ."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s11187-014-9545-9","article-title":"Non-R&D SMEs: External knowledge, absorptive capacity and product innovation","volume":"43","author":"Moilanen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Small Bus. Econ."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1007\/s001810050007","article-title":"R&D spillovers and productivity: Evidence from US manufacturing microdata","volume":"25","author":"Los","year":"2010","journal-title":"Empir. Econ."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1080\/09537325.2022.2030469","article-title":"Does inter-regional investment by publicly listed companies promote local technological catch-up? A study of the mediation effects of patents in China","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"724","DOI":"10.1080\/09537325.2019.1705275","article-title":"Impact of different patent cooperation network models on innovation performance of technology-based SMEs","volume":"32","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105056","DOI":"10.1016\/j.respol.2024.105056","article-title":"Dynamics of Imitation versus Innovation in Technological Leadership Change: Latecomers\u2019 Catch-up Strategies in Diverse Technological Regimes","volume":"53","author":"Chang","year":"2024","journal-title":"Res. Policy"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, Y., Wu, W., and Kim, Y. (2023). How do latecomer firms achieve catch-up through technology management: A comparative analysis. Humanit. Soc. Sci. Commun., 10.","DOI":"10.1057\/s41599-023-02003-3"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Khunakornbodintr, S., Lv, P., and Hain, D.S. (2024). Windows of opportunity for unrelated diversification: A patent data analysis of the field of neurotechnology. Int. J. Emerg. Mark., Early Access.","DOI":"10.1108\/IJOEM-07-2023-1129"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3786","DOI":"10.1080\/09537325.2023.2223733","article-title":"From leveraging to learning: Latecomer trade-offs between technology purchase and imitation","volume":"36","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Technol. Anal. Strateg. Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"214","article-title":"The \u201cGreen Patent Paradox\u201d and Fair Use: The Intellectual Property Solution to Fight Climate Change","volume":"11","author":"Cayton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Seattle J. Technol. Environ. Innov. Law"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1504","DOI":"10.1287\/orsc.2016.1098","article-title":"Collaborative promotion of technology standards and the impact on innovation, industry structure, and organizational capabilities: Evidence from modern patent pools","volume":"27","author":"Vakili","year":"2016","journal-title":"Organ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Musk, E. (2014, June 12). All Our Patent Are Belong to You. Available online: https:\/\/www.tesla.com\/blog\/all-our-patent-are-belong-you."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Bowman, J. (2024, July 20). The Eco-Patent Commons: Caring Through Sharing. WIPO Magazine, 3 June 2009. Available online: https:\/\/www.wipo.int\/wipo_magazine\/en\/2009\/03\/article_0004.html."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"132","DOI":"10.1287\/msom.2016.0598","article-title":"Open or closed? Technology sharing, supplier investment, and competition","volume":"19","author":"Hu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Manuf. Serv. Oper. Manag."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"BBC (2020, June 17). How Elon Musk Aims to Revolutionise Battery Technology. Justin Rowlatt., Available online: https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/business-53067009."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"022103","DOI":"10.1088\/1755-1315\/692\/2\/022103","article-title":"Competition and Valuation: A Case Study of Tesla Motors","volume":"692","author":"Liu","year":"2021","journal-title":"IOP Conf. Ser. Earth Environ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"BBC (2024, April 22). Tesla Cuts Prices in Major Markets as Sales Fall. Mariko Oi., Available online: https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/articles\/c1d4g8jz57yo."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"637","article-title":"Evolutionary games in economics","volume":"59","author":"Friedman","year":"1991","journal-title":"Econom. J. Econom. Soc."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Fudenberg, D., and Tirole, J. (1991). Game Theory, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"152","article-title":"Game analysis of the knowledge sharing mechanism for the supply chain collaborative innovation","volume":"8","author":"Liu","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Ind. Eng. Manag."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2018.08.007","article-title":"Using evolutionary game theory to study governments and manufacturers\u2019 behavioral strategies under various carbon taxes and subsidies","volume":"201","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peng, X., Wang, F., Wang, J., and Qian, C. (2022). Research on food safety control based on evolutionary game method from the perspective of the food supply chain. Sustainability, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/su14138122"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jclepro.2017.09.181","article-title":"A game theoretic approach for green and non-green product pricing in chain-to-chain competitive sustainable and regular dual-channel supply chains","volume":"170","author":"Jamali","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Clean. Prod."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124925","DOI":"10.1016\/j.eswa.2024.124925","article-title":"Two-stage evolutionary game model on complex networks for emergency logistics based on blockchain platform","volume":"256","author":"Xue","year":"2024","journal-title":"Expert Syst. Appl."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1186\/s40854-023-00575-2","article-title":"The impact of monetary policy interventions on banking sector stocks: An empirical investigation of the COVID-19 crisis","volume":"10","author":"Shannon","year":"2024","journal-title":"Financ. Innov."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1007\/s10888-023-09596-4","article-title":"Monetary compensation schemes during the COVID-19 pandemic: Implications for household incomes, liquidity constraints and consumption across the EU","volume":"22","author":"Christl","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Econ. Inequal."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.54097\/bj4e9p59","article-title":"The Expansion of Central Bank Collateral and Green Innovation of Enterprises","volume":"15","author":"Wei","year":"2024","journal-title":"Front. Bus. Econ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.54097\/9d7rkg65","article-title":"The Expansion of Monetary Policy Collateral Promotes Green Innovation of Heavily Polluting Enterprises","volume":"44","author":"Lv","year":"2024","journal-title":"Highlights Bus. Econ. Manag."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101859","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pacfin.2022.101859","article-title":"Economic policy uncertainty and enterprise investment decision: Evidence from China","volume":"75","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pac.-Basin Financ. J."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, W., and Wang, D. (2021). Will Increasing Government Subsidies Promote Open Innovation? A Simulation Analysis of China\u2019s Wind Power Industry. Sustainability, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/su132313497"},{"key":"ref_51","unstructured":"Feriansyah, F., and Nursechafia, N. (April, January 31). Empirical Study of Interest Rate Pass-Through Before and After Subprime Mortgage Crisis: An International Evidence. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Contemporary Risk Studies, Jakarta, Indonesia."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"411","DOI":"10.1037\/hea0001288","article-title":"The effectiveness of nonfinancial interventions and monetary incentives on COVID-19 vaccination: A meta-analysis","volume":"42","author":"Huang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Health Psychol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102543","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jimonfin.2021.102543","article-title":"Unconventional monetary policy and disaster risk: Evidence from the subprime and COVID\u201319 crises","volume":"122","author":"Gao","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Int. Money Financ."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmaa.2019.01.003","article-title":"Consumption and Investment with Interest Rate Risk","volume":"476","author":"Guasoni","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Math. Anal. Appl."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"649","DOI":"10.1086\/712506","article-title":"Killer Acquisitions","volume":"129","author":"Cunningham","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Political Econ."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1111\/manc.12386","article-title":"Partial acquisition and patent licensing in an asymmetric duopoly","volume":"90","author":"Niu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Manch. Sch."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, S., Li, J., Jiang, B., and Guo, T. (2023). Government Intervention, Structural Transformation, and Carbon Emissions: Evidence from China. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 20.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph20021343"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121265","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apenergy.2023.121265","article-title":"Government intervention and technological innovation in the wind power industry in China: The role of industrial environmental turbulence","volume":"344","author":"Jiang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Appl. Energy"},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhan, W., Jiang, M., and Wang, X. (2022). Optimal Capacity Decision-Making of Omnichannel Catering Merchants Considering the Service Environment Based on Queuing Theory. Systems, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems10050144"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huang, X., Zhan, W., Li, C., Ma, T., and Hong, T. (2024). Collaborative Decision-Making of the Supply Chain System Considering Green Innovation Capability. Kybernetes, Early Access.","DOI":"10.1108\/K-10-2023-2183"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4307","DOI":"10.1051\/ro\/2024152","article-title":"The optimal decision of service provider considering extra waiting area value-added services\u2013pooled or dedicated?","volume":"58","author":"Zhan","year":"2024","journal-title":"RAIRO-Oper. Res."}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/3\/146\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T16:39:53Z","timestamp":1760027993000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/3\/146"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,3]]}},"alternative-id":["systems13030146"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems13030146","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2079-8954"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,21]]}}}