{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,12]],"date-time":"2026-03-12T15:41:27Z","timestamp":1773330087400,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":65,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743465600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Defence Science &amp; Technology Laboratory (Dstl)"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Battlefields contain complex networks of electromagnetic (EM) systems, owned by adversary\/allied military forces and civilians, communicating intentionally or unintentionally. Attacker\u2019s strategies may include Intentional EM Interference (IEMI) to adversary target systems, although transmitted signals may additionally degrade\/disrupt allied\/civilian systems (called victims). To aid decision-making processes relating to IEMI attacks, Risk Assessment (RA) is performed to determine whether interference risks to allied\/civilian systems are acceptable. Currently, there is no formalized Quantitative RA Method (QRAM) capable of calculating victim risk distributions, so a novel approach is proposed to address this knowledge gap, utilizing an Electromagnetic Warfare (EW) IEMI RA method modeling scenarios consisting of interacting EM systems within complex, dynamic, diverse, and uncertain environments, using Systems-of-Systems (SoS) theory. This paper aims to address this knowledge gap via critical analysis utilizing a case study which demonstrates the use of an Acknowledged SoS-based model as input to a QRAM capable of calculating victim risk distributions within EW IEMI RA-associated scenarios. Transmitter operators possess only uncertain\/fuzzy knowledge of victim systems, so it is proposed that a Moot Acknowledged System-of-Fuzzy-Systems applies to EW IEMI RA scenarios. In summary, a novel SoS description feeding a novel QRAM (supported by a systematic literature review of RA mathematical modeling techniques)is proposed to address the knowledge gap.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13040244","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]],"date-time":"2025-04-01T11:08:40Z","timestamp":1743505720000},"page":"244","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Application of Systems-of-Systems Theory to Electromagnetic Warfare Intentional Electromagnetic Interference Risk Assessment"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-6523-1884","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nigel","family":"Davies","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole BH12 5BB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9138-9319","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Huseyin","family":"Dogan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole BH12 5BB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8114-2737","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Duncan","family":"Ki-Aries","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Science & Technology, Bournemouth University, Poole BH12 5BB, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2004.831819","article-title":"Classification of intentional electromagnetic environments (IEMI)","volume":"46","author":"Giri","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2004.831899","article-title":"Introduction to the special issue on high-power electromagnetics (HPEM) and intentional electromagnetic interference (IEMI)","volume":"46","author":"Radasky","year":"2004","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sabath, F. (2011, January 13\u201320). What can be learned from documented intentional electromagnetic interference (IEMI) attacks?. Proceedings of the 2011 31th URSI General Assembly and Scientific Symposium, Istanbul, Turkiye.","DOI":"10.1109\/URSIGASS.2011.6050718"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"297","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-9-297-2011","article-title":"Fault tree analysis for system modeling in case of intentional EMI","volume":"9","author":"Genender","year":"2011","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Science"},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"(2024, December 02). EMSOPEDIA Electro Magnetic Spectrum Operation (EMSO). Available online: https:\/\/www.emsopedia.org\/entries\/electro-magnetic-spectrum-operation-emso\/."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"HQ Department of the Army (2015). Techniques for Spectrum Management Operations, ATP 6-02.70, HQ Department of the Army."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"O\u2019Donohue, D. (2022). Joint Electromagnetic Spectrum Operations. Joint Publication 3-85, U.S. Department of the Army."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Crawley, F., and Tyler, B. (2003). Hazard Identification Methods, Institute of Chemical Engineers."},{"key":"ref_9","unstructured":"Deshmukh, L.M. (2005). Industrial Safety Management: Hazard Identification and Risk Control, McGraw-Hill Education LLC."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mannan, S. (2014). Lees\u2019 Process Safety Essentials: Hazard Identification, Assessment and Control, Butterworth-Heinemann.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-1-85617-776-4.00006-3"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). British Standard BS: IEC61882:2016 Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP Studies)\u2014Application Guide. Available online: https:\/\/shop.bsigroup.com\/ProductDetail\/?pid=000000000030309555."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). IEC 60812:2018 Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA and FMECA). Available online: https:\/\/webstore.iec.ch\/publication\/26359."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). IEC61025:2006 Fault Tree Analysis (FTA). Available online: https:\/\/webstore.iec.ch\/publication\/4311."},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). IEC 62502:2010 Analysis Techniques for Dependability\u2014Event Tree Analysis (ETA). Available online: https:\/\/webstore.iec.ch\/publication\/7131."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"UK Civil Aviation Authority (2024, January 29). Introduction to Bowtie. Available online: https:\/\/www.caa.co.uk\/Safety-initiatives-and-resources\/Working-with-industry\/Bowtie\/About-Bowtie\/Introduction-to-bowtie\/."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"(2024, December 02). ISO\/IEC\/IEEE 21839:2019 Systems and Software Engineering\u2014System of Systems (SoS) Considerations in Life Cycle Stages of a System. Available online: https:\/\/www.iso.org\/obp\/ui\/#iso:std:iso-iec-ieee:21839:ed-1:v1:en."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"920","DOI":"10.21629\/JSEE.2019.05.10","article-title":"Resilience based importance measure analysis for SoS","volume":"30","author":"Pan","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Syst. Eng. Electron."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olivero, M.A., Bertolino, A., Dominguez-Mayo, F.J., Escalona, M.J., and Matteucci, I. (2019, January 28). Security Assessment of Systems of Systems. Proceedings of the IEEE\/ACM 7th International Workshop on Software Engineering for Systems-of-Systems (SESoS) and 13th Workshop on Distributed Software Development, Software Ecosystems and Systems-of-Systems (WDES), Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SESoS\/WDES.2019.00017"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva, E., Batista, T., and Oquendo, F. (2015, January 17\u201320). A mission-oriented approach for designing system-of-systems. Proceedings of the 10th SoSE Conference, San Antonio, TX, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSOSE.2015.7151951"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chiprianov, V., Falkner, K., Gallon, L., and Munier, M. (2014, January 9\u201313). Towards modelling and analysing non-functional properties of systems of systems. Proceedings of the 9th Int. Conference on SOSE, Adelaide, Australia.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSOSE.2014.6892503"},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"Ki-Aries, D. (2020). Security Risk Assessment in Systems of Systems. [Ph.D. Thesis, Bournemouth University]."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"(2024, December 02). Systems of Systems Characterization and Types, Dr. Judith S. Dahmann, (STO-EN-SCI-276). Available online: https:\/\/www.sto.nato.int\/publications\/STO%20Educational%20Notes\/STO-EN-SCI-276\/EN-SCI-276-01.pdf."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"50","article-title":"Direct and Indirect Interactions","volume":"3","author":"Moon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Educ. Knowl."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1177\/0739456X17723971","article-title":"Guidance on Conducting a Systematic Literature Review","volume":"39","author":"Xiao","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Plan. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"(2024, December 02). PRISMA. Welcome to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Website. Available online: http:\/\/prisma-statement.org\/."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1108\/LODJ-08-2021-0394","article-title":"Leadership and risk: A review of the literature","volume":"43","author":"Fourie","year":"2022","journal-title":"Leadersh. Organ. Dev. J."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100496","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cosrev.2022.100496","article-title":"System security assurance: A systematic literature review","volume":"45","author":"Shukla","year":"2022","journal-title":"Comput. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39325","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2022.3162594","article-title":"Social Engineering Attacks Prevention: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"10","author":"Syafitri","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"57792","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3073203","article-title":"A Systematic Literature Review on Cloud Computing Security: Threats and Mitigation Strategies","volume":"9","author":"Alouffi","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcan.2019.01.005","article-title":"A systematic literature review of blockchain cyber security","volume":"6","author":"Taylor","year":"2020","journal-title":"Digit. Commun. Netw."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2189","DOI":"10.1109\/JSYST.2018.2881017","article-title":"Safety and Security Co-Analyses: A Systematic Literature Review","volume":"13","author":"Lisova","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Syst. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nelson, B., and Olovsson, T. (2016, January 5\u20138). Security and Privacy for Big Data: A Systematic Literature Review. Proceedings of the 2016 IEEE International Conference on Big Data (Big Data), Washington, DC, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/BigData.2016.7841037"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). Harvard Countway Library. Systematic Reviews and Meta Analysis. Available online: https:\/\/guides.library.harvard.edu\/meta-analysis\/GettingStarted."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"(2024, January 29). Bournemouth University. Systematic Reviews\u2014Searching for Literature: Introduction. Available online: https:\/\/libguides.bournemouth.ac.uk\/c.php?g=471700&p=3225871."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2015.2484067","article-title":"System-Level Vulnerability Assessment for EME: From Fault Tree Analysis to Bayesian Networks-Part I: Methodology Framework","volume":"58","author":"Mao","year":"2016","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"200","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2013.2272944","article-title":"Probabilistic risk analysis technique of intentional electromagnetic interference at system level","volume":"56","author":"Genender","year":"2014","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1219","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2022.3169820","article-title":"A Bayesian Estimation of Confidence Limits for Multi-state System Vulnerability Assessment With IEMI","volume":"64","author":"Liu","year":"2022","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"467","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2018.2823870","article-title":"Vulnerability assessment of a multistate component for IEMI based on a Bayesian method","volume":"61","author":"Liu","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Houret, T., Besnier, P., Vauchamp, S., and Pouliguen, P. (2020, January 23\u201325). Probability of Failure Using the Kriging-Controlled Stratification Method and Statistical Inference. Proceedings of the 2020 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility\u2014EMC EUROPE, EMC EUROPE 2020, Online.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMCEUROPE48519.2020.9245860"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4614-9500-0_24","article-title":"EMI risk management with the threat scenario, effect, and criticality analysis","volume":"Volume 10","author":"Sabath","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ultra-Wideband Short-Pulse Electromagnetics"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mondal, S.K., Tan, T., Khanam, S., Kabir, H.M.D., and Ni, K. (2023). Security Quantification of Container-Technology-Driven E-Government Systems. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12051238"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peikert, T., Garbe, H., and Potthast, S. (2015, January 16\u201322). A fuzzy approach for IEMI risk analysis of IT-Systems with respect to transient disturbances. Proceedings of the IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility, Dresden, Germany.","DOI":"10.1109\/ISEMC.2015.7256318"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.5194\/ars-14-91-2016","article-title":"Risk analysis with a fuzzy-logic approach of a complex installation","volume":"14","author":"Peikert","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Radio Sci."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1294","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2017.2682643","article-title":"Fuzzy-Based Risk Analysis for IT-Systems and Their Infrastructure","volume":"59","author":"Peikert","year":"2017","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1515\/jms-2016-0189","article-title":"An examination of the implementation of risk-based approaches in military operations","volume":"5","author":"Liwang","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Mil. Stud."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"475","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2019.06.001","article-title":"Learning about risk: Machine learning for risk assessment","volume":"118","author":"Paltrinieria","year":"2019","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2017.01.011","article-title":"Risk assessment: What is it worth? Shall we just do away with it, or can it do a better job?","volume":"99","author":"Pasman","year":"2017","journal-title":"Saf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","first-page":"757","article-title":"From Conventional to Machine Learning Methods for Maritime Risk Assessment","volume":"15","author":"Rawson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Mar. Navig. Saf. Sea Transp."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Choi, S., Kwon, O.-J., Oh, H., and Shin, D. (2020). Method for effectiveness assessment of electronic warfare systems in cyberspace. Symmetry, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/sym12122107"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devaraj, L., Ruddle, A.R., and Duffy, A.P. (August, January 26). EMI Risk Estimation for System-Level Functions Using Probabilistic Graphical Models. Proceedings of the Joint IEEE International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility Signal and Power Integrity, and EMC Europe, EMC\/SI\/PI\/EMC Europe 2021, Virtual.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMC\/SI\/PI\/EMCEurope52599.2021.9559291"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2008.2010327","article-title":"Methodology for classifying facilities with respect to intentional EMI","volume":"51","author":"Mansson","year":"2009","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ruddle, A.R. (2020, January 23\u201325). Risk Analysis for Automotive EMC: Scope, Approaches and Challenges. Proceedings of the 2020 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility\u2014EMC EUROPE 2020, Online.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMCEUROPE48519.2020.9245774"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Devaraj, L., Ruddle, A.R., and Duffy, A.P. (2020, January 23\u201325). System Level Risk Analysis for Immunity in Automotive Functional Safety Analyses. Proceedings of the 2020 International Symposium on Electromagnetic Compatibility\u2014EMC EUROPE 2020, Online.","DOI":"10.1109\/EMCEUROPE48519.2020.9245692"},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1669","DOI":"10.1109\/TEMC.2019.2925712","article-title":"Bayesian inference for susceptibility of electronics to transient electromagnetic disturbances with failure mechanism Consideration","volume":"62","author":"Li","year":"2020","journal-title":"IEEE Trans. Electromagn. Compat."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1109\/CC.2018.8438272","article-title":"System-level EMC assessment for military vehicular communication systems based on a modified four-level assessment model","volume":"15","author":"Zhou","year":"2018","journal-title":"China Commun."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, T., Chen, Y., Wang, Y., Zhang, D., and Zhao, M. (2023). EMI Threat Assessment of UAV Data Link Based on Multi-Task CNN. Electronics, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/electronics12071631"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45113","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2023.3273612","article-title":"Mission Impact Analysis by Measuring the Effect on Physical Combat Operations Associated with Cyber Asset Damage","volume":"11","author":"Jang","year":"2023","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Butt, F.A., and Jalil, M. (2013, January 9\u201311). An overview of electronic warfare in radar systems. Proceedings of the International Conference on Technological Advances in Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering, Konya, Turkey.","DOI":"10.1109\/TAEECE.2013.6557273"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Howard, C., and Stumptner, M. (2005, January 4\u20137). Probabilistic reasoning techniques for situation assessments. Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Information Technology and Applications, Sydney, NSW, Australia."},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"35","article-title":"Development of an improved method for finding a solution for neuro-fuzzy expert systems","volume":"5","author":"Salnikova","year":"2020","journal-title":"East.-Eur. J. Enterp. Technol."},{"key":"ref_61","first-page":"22","article-title":"Development of a complex method for finding a solution for neuro-fuzzy expert systems","volume":"6","author":"Sova","year":"2020","journal-title":"East.-Eur. J. Enterp. Technol."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3390\/encyclopedia3010006","article-title":"Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) Methods and Concepts","volume":"3","author":"Taherdoost","year":"2023","journal-title":"Encyclopedia"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"Davies, N., Williams, C., Osborne, M., Dogan, H., Ki-Aries, D., and Jiang, N. (IEEE Trans. EMC, 2025). Electromagnetic Warfare Intentional Interference: Victim Risk Assessment, IEEE Trans. EMC."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"de Vries, J.P. (2024, December 02). An Outline of Risk-Informed Interference Assessment. Available online: https:\/\/ssrn.com\/abstract=2564213."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ki-Aries, D., Faily, S., Dogan, H., and Williams, C. (2018, January 20). Assessing System of Systems Security Risk and Requirements with OASoSIS. Proceedings of the IEEE 5th International Workshop on Evolving Security & Privacy Requirements Engineering (ESPRE), Banff, AB, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/ESPRE.2018.00009"}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/4\/244\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:07:33Z","timestamp":1760029653000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/4\/244"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]},"references-count":65,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4]]}},"alternative-id":["systems13040244"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems13040244","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-8954","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,1]]}}}