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of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["690713"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["690713"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012166","name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["2017YFE0194700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFE0194700"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012166","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Ship collisions pose a significant threat to maritime safety, especially in congested precautionary areas with high vessel traffic density. Traditional collision risk assessment methods, such as distance to closest point of approach (DCPA) and time to closest point of approach (TCPA), often overlook environmental uncertainties and variations in human response. To address these limitations, this study proposes a novel approach for collision risk assessment using automatic identification system (AIS) data. AIS data from vessels in precautionary areas are resampled to synchronize their temporal frameworks, enabling the systematic identification of ship encounters. Each encounter is analyzed by evaluating critical parameters, including the minimum ship encounter distance (MSED), relative azimuth angles, and trajectories, within a customized ship domain model that incorporates vessel characteristics such as ship length and course. Key metrics, such as intrusion depth and time, are calculated based on vessels\u2019 entry and exit points during each encounter. A set of collision risk indices, which integrates both intrusion depth and time, is introduced, with particular emphasis on intrusion depth due to its heightened sensitivity to proximity danger and constrained maneuvering space. An extensive analysis of vessel interactions in the precautionary area establishes a holistic collision risk index. A case study using AIS data from Ningbo\u2013Zhoushan Port, involving a dataset of 1000 ship encounters, demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed method. Specifically, the holistic collision risk in the No.2 precautionary area is 0.456, while the No.3 precautionary area shows a risk value of 0.443. These results confirm the effectiveness and feasibility of the proposed method for evaluating and classifying collision risks, offering a more precise and reliable framework for collision risk assessment in complex navigational environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13050338","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]],"date-time":"2025-05-01T09:16:12Z","timestamp":1746090972000},"page":"338","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["A Novel Method for Holistic Collision Risk Assessment in the Precautionary Area Using AIS Data"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Yu","family":"Zhong","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Center, Ningbo University Sub-Center, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Hongzhu","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Center, Ningbo University Sub-Center, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4260-6732","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Manel","family":"Grifoll","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Barcelona School of Nautical Studies, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya (UPC\u2013BarcelonaTech), 08003 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Agust\u00ed","family":"Mart\u00edn","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Barcelona School of Nautical Studies, Universitat Polit\u00e8cnica de Catalunya (UPC\u2013BarcelonaTech), 08003 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8795-3423","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yusheng","family":"Zhou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Logistics and Maritime Studies, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hongkong 999077, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jiao","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Center, Ningbo University Sub-Center, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Pengjun","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315211, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Center, Ningbo University Sub-Center, Ningbo 315211, China"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xue, Z., Zhang, W., and Yin, J. 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