{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T01:15:45Z","timestamp":1760058945731,"version":"build-2065373602"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]],"date-time":"2025-05-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1747008000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"IMOD","award":["4441379636"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["4441379636"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Future systems of systems (SoSs) must adapt rapidly to evolving environments and stakeholder needs, yet conventional system engineering approaches often lack the flexibility to accommodate such change without costly re-engineering. Addressing this gap, this study proposes a novel, generic architecture model for self-organized adaptive platform SoSs, emphasizing a modular, layered structure that enables dynamic integration and reconfiguration of sub-units for diverse missions. The research is grounded in a comprehensive review of complex SoS theory and platform system design, focusing on physical platforms with central management. Methodologically, this study develops a logical architecture for electronics and software, detailing the roles and interactions of each architectural layer and component. The model\u2019s efficacy is demonstrated through its application to the F-35 Joint Strike Fighter, where it identified opportunities to enhance the aircraft\u2019s adaptability and self-organization. Results indicate that early adoption of this generic architecture can significantly reduce design and redesign costs, prevent over-specification, and promote lifecycle adaptability across various platform types\u2014including land, air, and sea systems. The proposed architecture thus offers a robust foundation for future adaptive SoSs, supporting efficient evolution in response to unpredictable operational demands.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13050368","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]],"date-time":"2025-05-12T09:13:38Z","timestamp":1747041218000},"page":"368","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Generic Architecture for Self-Organized Adaptive Platform System of Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"Miri","family":"Sitton","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv P.O. Box 39040, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0003-0509-1327","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Rozi","family":"Alon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv P.O. Box 39040, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0922-8381","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yoram","family":"Reich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv P.O. Box 39040, Israel"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Bar-Yam, Y. (2003). Unifying principles in complex systems. Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Information Technology and Cognitive Science, Springer."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Hybertson, D.W. (2016). Model-Oriented Systems Engineering Science: A Unifying Framework for Traditional and Complex Systems, Auerbach Publications."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2014.03.103","article-title":"Engineered resilient systems: A DoD perspective","volume":"28","author":"Goerger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4822633","article-title":"Dynamics of complex systems (studies in nonlinearity)","volume":"12","author":"McKay","year":"1998","journal-title":"Comput. Phys."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s13194-012-0056-8","article-title":"What is a complex system?","volume":"3","author":"Ladyman","year":"2013","journal-title":"Eur. J. Philos. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Birdsey, L., Szabo, C., and Falkner, K. (2017, January 18\u201322). Identifying self-organization and adaptability in complex adaptive systems. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE 11th International Conference on Self-Adaptive and Self-Organizing Systems (SASO), Tucson, AZ, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/SASO.2017.22"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"267","article-title":"Architecting principles for systems-of-systems","volume":"1","author":"Maier","year":"1998","journal-title":"Syst. Eng. J. Int. Counc. Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dahmann, J.S., and Baldwin, K.J. (2008, January 7\u201310). Understanding the current state of US defense systems of systems and the implications for systems engineering. Proceedings of the 2008 2nd Annual IEEE Systems Conference, Montreal, QC, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SYSTEMS.2008.4518994"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.20197","article-title":"Adaptable platform-based engineering: Key enablers and outlook for the future","volume":"15","author":"Madni","year":"2012","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sch\u00f6pping, T., Korthals, T., Hesse, M., and R\u00fcckert, U. (2018, January 29\u201331). Generic Architecture for Modular Real-time Systems in Robotics. Proceedings of the ICINCO 2018, Portu, Portugal.","DOI":"10.5220\/0006899304030410"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.21312","article-title":"Advancing architecture options theory: Six industrial case studies","volume":"18","author":"Engel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gaide, B., Gaitonde, D., Ravishankar, C., and Bauer, T. (2019, January 24\u201326). Xilinx adaptive compute acceleration platform: Versaltm architecture. Proceedings of the 2019 ACM\/SIGDA International Symposium on Field-Programmable Gate Arrays, Seaside, CA, USA.","DOI":"10.1145\/3289602.3293906"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reich, Y., Sitton, M., Engel, A., Orion, U., Danielli, A., Hauptman, A., Blekhman, A., and Shabi, J. (2023, January 16\u201317). Context-Dependent Research Agenda for Systems Engineering in 2050. Proceedings of the Conference on Systems Engineering Research, Hoboken, NJ, USA.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-49179-5_44"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller, W.D. (2022). The future of systems engineering: Realizing the systems engineering vision 2035. Transdisciplinarity and the Future of Engineering, IOS Press.","DOI":"10.3233\/ATDE220707"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Petitdemange, F., Borne, I., and Buisson, J. (2016, January 28). Assisting the evolutionary development of SoS with reconfiguration patterns. Proceedings of the 10th European Conference on Software Architecture Workshops, Copenhagen, Denmark.","DOI":"10.1145\/2993412.3004845"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cronel, M., Dumas, B., Palanque, P., and Canny, A. (2019). MIODMIT: A generic architecture for dynamic multimodal interactive systems. Human-Centered Software Engineering, Proceedings of the 7th IFIP WG 13.2 International Working Conference, HCSE 2018, Sophia Antipolis, France, 3\u20135 September 2018, Springer International Publishing. Revised Selected Papers 7.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05909-5_7"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s11761-017-0213-1","article-title":"A global generic architecture for the future Internet of Things","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2017","journal-title":"Serv. Oriented Comput. Appl."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2018.09.020","article-title":"A generic internet of things architecture for controlling electrical energy consumption in smart homes","volume":"43","author":"Iqbal","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ress.2015.03.018","article-title":"Four concepts for resilience and the implications for the future of resilience engineering","volume":"141","author":"Woods","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reliab. Eng. Syst. Saf."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.21351","article-title":"Measuring flexibility, descriptive complexity, and rework potential in generic system architectures","volume":"19","author":"Broniatowski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jamshidi, M. (2017). Introduction to system of systems. Systems of Systems Engineering, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420065893"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vargas, I.G., Gottardi, T., and Braga, R.T.V. (2018, January 24\u201328). An approach to integrate systems towards a directed system-of-systems. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Software Architecture: Companion Proceedings, Madrid, Spain.","DOI":"10.1145\/3241403.3241431"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.21417","article-title":"EPIC framework for enterprise processes integrative collaboration","volume":"21","author":"Sitton","year":"2018","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1109\/5254.769885","article-title":"An architecture-based approach to self-adaptive software","volume":"14","author":"Oreizy","year":"1999","journal-title":"IEEE Intell. Syst. Their Appl."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2013.01.029","article-title":"An approach to facilitate decision making on architecture evolution strategies","volume":"16","author":"Fang","year":"2013","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou, B., Dvoryanchikova, A., Lobov, A., and Lastra, J.L.M. (2011, January 26\u201329). Modeling system of systems: A generic method based on system characteristics and interface. Proceedings of the 2011 9th IEEE International Conference on Industrial Informatics, Lisbon, Portugal.","DOI":"10.1109\/INDIN.2011.6034903"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1094","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2020.2985293","article-title":"Synergizing domain expertise with self-awareness in software systems: A patternized architecture guideline","volume":"108","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Boyd, J.R. (2018). A Discourse on Winning and Losing, Air University Press."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"Hoffmann, H., Maggio, M., Santambrogio, M.D., Leva, A., and Agarwal, A. (2011). SEEC: A General and Extensible Framework for Self-Aware Computing, MIT-CSAIL."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Brehmer, B. (2005, January 13\u201316). The dynamic OODA loop: Amalgamating Boyd\u2019s OODA loop and the cybernetic approach to command and control. Proceedings of the 10th International Command and Control Research Technology Symposium, McLean, Virginia."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giese, H., Vogel, T., Diaconescu, A., G\u00f6tz, S., and Kounev, S. (2017). Architectural concepts for self-aware computing systems. Self-Aware Computing Systems, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-47474-8_5"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ingram, C., Payne, R., Perry, S., Holt, J., Hansen, F.O., and Couto, L.D. (April, January 31). Modelling patterns for systems of systems architectures. Proceedings of the 2014 IEEE International Systems Conference Proceedings, Ottawa, ON, Canada.","DOI":"10.1109\/SysCon.2014.6819249"},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Crawley, E., Cameron, B., and Selva, D. (2015). System Architecture: Strategy and Product Development for Complex Systems, Prentice Hall Press."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2019.2900903","article-title":"The adaptive avionics platform","volume":"34","author":"Annighoefer","year":"2019","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"DoD (2010). Department of Defense Architecture Framework (DoDAF) Version 2.02."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"TheOpenGroup 1 (2009). The Open Group Architecture (TOGAF), The Open Group."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Ministry of Defence (2010). Defence Standard 23-09, Issue 1 Publication Date 20 August 2010, Generic Vehicle Architecture (GVA), D\/DStan\/36\/9, UK Defence Standardization Kentigern House 65 Brown Street GLASGOW G2 8EX."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Yin, R.K. (2012). Applications of Case Study Research, Sage."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1007\/s00163-017-0260-9","article-title":"Pareto-optimization of complex system architecture for structural complexity and modularity","volume":"29","author":"Sinha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Eng. Des."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"H\u00f6ltt\u00e4-Otto, K., and De Weck, O. (2007, January 4\u20137). Metrics for assessing coupling density and modularity in complex products and systems. Proceedings of the International Design Engineering Technical Conferences and Computers and Information in Engineering Conference, Las Vegas, NV, USA."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.20090","article-title":"Designing systems for adaptability by means of architecture options","volume":"11","author":"Engel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ne\u0161i\u0107, D., Kr\u00fcger, J., St\u0103nciulescu, \u0218., and Berger, T. (2019, January 26\u201330). Principles of feature modeling. Proceedings of the 2019 27th ACM Joint Meeting on European Software Engineering Conference and Symposium on the Foundations of Software Engineering, Tallinn, Estonia.","DOI":"10.1145\/3338906.3338974"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cad.2005.11.005","article-title":"Standardization and modularization driven by minimizing overall process effort","volume":"38","author":"Sered","year":"2006","journal-title":"Comput.-Aided Des."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1007\/s11740-019-00902-6","article-title":"System architectures for Industrie 4.0 applications: Derivation of a generic architecture proposal","volume":"13","author":"Trunzer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Prod. Eng."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.21325","article-title":"Designing resilient systems-of-systems: A survey of metrics, methods, and challenges","volume":"18","author":"Uday","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Derigent, W., David, M., Andr\u00e9, P., and Cardin, O. (2022, January 22\u201323). Generic aggregation model for reconfigurable holonic control architecture\u2013the GARCIA framework. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Service Orientation in Holonic and Multi-Agent Manufacturing, Bucharest, Romania.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-24291-5_32"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"625","DOI":"10.1002\/sys.21331","article-title":"Enterprise systems engineering for better operational interoperability","volume":"18","author":"Sitton","year":"2015","journal-title":"Syst. Eng."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1177\/1548512917751873","article-title":"Transforming systems engineering through digital engineering","volume":"16","author":"Bone","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Def. Model. Simul."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1002\/sres.2621","article-title":"Complex system governance: Concept, utility, and challenges","volume":"36","author":"Keating","year":"2019","journal-title":"Syst. Res. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106934","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infsof.2022.106934","article-title":"Self-adaptive systems: A systematic literature review across categories and domains","volume":"148","author":"Wong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Inf. Softw. Technol."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"100465","article-title":"A model-based methodology to support systems security design and assessment","volume":"33","author":"Shaked","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Ind. Inf. Integr."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"VanderLeest, S.H. (2017, January 17\u201321). Designing a future airborne capability environment (FACE) hypervisor for safety and security. Proceedings of the 2017 IEEE\/AIAA 36th Digital Avionics Systems Conference (DASC), St. Petersburg, FL, USA.","DOI":"10.1109\/DASC.2017.8102056"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2015.150014","article-title":"Integrated modular avionics-past, present, and future","volume":"30","author":"Gaska","year":"2015","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiegand, C. (2018, January 25\u201329). F-35 air vehicle technology overview. Proceedings of the 2018 Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2018-3368"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lemons, G.T., and Carrington, K. (2018, January 25\u201329). F-35 mission systems design, development & verification. Proceedings of the 2018 Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2018-3519"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Frey, T.L., Aguilar, C., Engebretson, K., Faulk, D., and Lenning, L.G. (2018, January 25\u201329). F-35 information fusion. Proceedings of the 2018 Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2018-3520"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1109\/MAES.2003.1232153","article-title":"Open systems avionics architectures considerations","volume":"18","author":"Filyner","year":"2003","journal-title":"IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. Mag."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Robbins, D., Bobalik, J., De Stena, D., Martin, N., Plag, K., Rail, K., and Wall, K. (2018, January 25\u201329). F-35 subsystems design, development & verification. Proceedings of the 2018 Aviation Technology, Integration, and Operations Conference, Atlanta, Georgia.","DOI":"10.2514\/6.2018-3518"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Garrison, P.E. (2019, January 1\u20133). The architecture of the F-35 lightning II mission system integration lab then and now. Proceedings of the Annual Conference of the International Test and Evaluation Association, Huntsville, AL, USA."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gershenson, C. (2020). Guiding the self-organization of cyber-physical systems. Front. Robot. AI, 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2020.00041"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giordano, A., Spezzano, G., and Vinci, A. (2016). A smart platform for large-scale cyber-physical systems. Management of Cyber Physical Objects in the Future Internet of Things: Methods, Architectures and Applications, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-26869-9_6"}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/5\/368\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:31:00Z","timestamp":1760031060000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/13\/5\/368"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,5]]}},"alternative-id":["systems13050368"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems13050368","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"type":"electronic","value":"2079-8954"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,5,12]]}}}