{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T17:25:19Z","timestamp":1782581119184,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1765324800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Undergraduate Education and Teaching Reform Project of Sichuan Province","award":["YJGXM24-A007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["YJGXM24-A007"]}]},{"name":"Scientific Research Startup Fund of the Everest Talent Program of Chengdu University of Technology","award":["10912-KYQD2023-10125"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10912-KYQD2023-10125"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The integration of large language models (LLMs) into project-based learning (PBL) holds significant potential for addressing enduring pedagogical challenges in engineering education, such as providing scalable, personalized support during complex problem-solving. Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study investigates how different LLM usage strategies impact student learning within a blended engineering geology PBL context. A one-semester quasi-experiment (N = 120) employed a 2 (usage mode: individual\/shared) \u00d7 2 (interaction restriction: restricted\/unrestricted) factorial design. Mixed-methods data, including surveys, interaction logs, and reflective reports, were analyzed to assess learning engagement, psychological needs satisfaction, cognitive interaction levels, and project outcomes. Results demonstrate that the individual use strategy significantly outperformed shared use in enhancing engagement, needs satisfaction, higher-order cognitive interactions, and final project scores. The restricted interaction strategy effectively served as a metacognitive scaffold, optimizing the learning process by promoting deliberate planning. Notably, individual autonomy did not undermine collaboration but enhanced it by improving the quality of individual contributions to group work. Students also developed robust critical verification habits to navigate LLM \u201challucinations.\u201d This research identifies \u201cindividual autonomy\u201d as the core mechanism and \u201cmoderate constraint\u201d as a crucial design principle for LLM integration, providing an empirically supported framework for harnessing generative AI to foster both motivational and cognitive outcomes in engineering PBL.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems13121112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]],"date-time":"2025-12-10T15:32:17Z","timestamp":1765380737000},"page":"1112","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["How to Harness LLMs in Project-Based Learning: Empirical Evidence for Individual Autonomy and Moderate Constraints in Engineering Education"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3998-0088","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Xiaoyu","family":"Yi","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Discipline Development Evaluation Research Center, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wenkai","family":"Feng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Discipline Development Evaluation Research Center, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yali","family":"He","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Sichuan Provincial Discipline Development Evaluation Research Center, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"},{"name":"Library of Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Fei","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Environment and Civil Engineering, Chengdu University of Technology, Chengdu 610059, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12,10]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101003","DOI":"10.1016\/j.iheduc.2025.101003","article-title":"Exploring Human and AI Collaboration in Inclusive STEM Teacher Training: A Synergistic Approach Based on Self-Determination Theory","volume":"65","author":"Li","year":"2025","journal-title":"Internet High. 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