{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T14:30:13Z","timestamp":1781533813397,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778976000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["52272334"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52272334"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["61074142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61074142"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["52272334"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["52272334"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["61074142"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["61074142"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100022963","name":"Key R&D Program of Zhejiang Province","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2024C01180"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024C01180"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100022963","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Ningbo Internation-al Science and Technology Cooperation Project","award":["2023H020"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2023H020"]}]},{"name":"EC H2020 Project","award":["690713"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["690713"]}]},{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2017YFE0194700"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2017YFE0194700"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Systems"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This study proposes a Behavior-Calibrated Endogenous Choice 2SFCA (BCEC-2SFCA) framework for assessing spatial accessibility to tertiary hospitals. Using large-scale taxi trajectory data from Ningbo, China, we empirically calibrate the Huff model parameters (\u03b1=1.1758,\u00a0\u00a0\u03b2=2.9608) based on observed hospital choices and construct travel time and distance matrices from observed trips. Unlike existing Huff-based FCA approaches that assume parameter values, BCEC-2SFCA jointly estimates the attractiveness elasticity and distance-decay coefficient directly from local healthcare travel behavior and integrates these calibrated probabilities into a 2SFCA structure where hospital catchments are endogenously generated rather than exogenously imposed. Compared with conventional Gaussian 2SFCA, the BCEC-2SFCA model produces a continuously varying and behaviorally plausible accessibility surface and better replicates the relative order of hospital attractiveness (\u03c1=0.527,\u00a0p&lt;0.05), although its RMSE is slightly higher (0.02700 vs. 0.02211) while MAPE is clearly lower (32.17% vs. 42.12%). Robustness checks using all 22 hospitals confirm stable estimates, and subgroup analyses show consistent advantages across hospital scales. The framework is specifically designed for high-order medical services with strong inter-facility competition\u2014such as tertiary hospitals\u2014and its applicability to proximity-based services is limited.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/systems14050571","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,20]],"date-time":"2026-05-20T14:12:54Z","timestamp":1779286374000},"page":"571","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modeling Healthcare Accessibility with Endogenous Search Ranges: A Huff-Based Multi-Source Data Approach"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Weijie","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-5457-7815","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yifei","family":"Mao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tunan","family":"Xu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yibing","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Intelligent Transportation Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhengfeng","family":"Huang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Centre Ningbo University Sub-Centre, Ningbo 315832, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5821-4982","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Markos","family":"Papageorgiou","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"},{"name":"Dynamic Systems and Simulation Laboratory, Technical University of Crete, 73100 Chania, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Pengjun","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Maritime and Transportation, Ningbo University, Ningbo 315832, China"},{"name":"Collaborative Innovation Center of Modern Urban Traffic Technologies, Southeast University, Nanjing 211189, China"},{"name":"National Traffic Management Engineering & Technology Research Centre Ningbo University Sub-Centre, Ningbo 315832, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"865","DOI":"10.1068\/b29120","article-title":"Measures of spatial accessibility to health care in a GIS environment: Synthesis and a case study in the Chicago region","volume":"30","author":"Luo","year":"2003","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-072X-11-32","article-title":"Spatial access to residential care resources in Beijing, China","volume":"11","author":"Cheng","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2014.12.006","article-title":"Accessibility, equity and health care: Review and research directions for transport geographers","volume":"43","author":"Neutens","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"659","DOI":"10.1068\/b36149","article-title":"Geographic disparities in accessibility to food stores in southwest Mississippi","volume":"38","author":"Dai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. B Plan. Des."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2011.05.002","article-title":"Racial\/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities in urban green space accessibility: Where to intervene","volume":"102","author":"Dai","year":"2011","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"100752","article-title":"Dynamic measurements of geographical accessibility considering traffic congestion using open data: A cross-sectional assessment for haemodialysis services in Cali, Colombia","volume":"34","author":"Cuervo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Lancet Reg. Health-Am."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115458","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2022.115458","article-title":"Inequalities of spatial primary healthcare accessibility in China","volume":"314","author":"Jia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Soc. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2023.103772","article-title":"Using an age-grouped Gaussian-based two-step floating catchment area method (AG2SFCA) to measure walking accessibility to urban parks: With an explicit focus on elderly","volume":"114","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.2307\/3144521","article-title":"A probabilistic analysis of shopping center trade areas","volume":"39","author":"Huff","year":"1963","journal-title":"Land Econ."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"436","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12096","article-title":"Integrating the Huff Model and Floating Catchment Area Methods to Analyze Spatial Access to Healthcare Services","volume":"18","author":"Luo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Wang, Y.H. (2022). Equity-Oriented Spatial Pattern, Influencing Factors, and Optimization of Urban Basic Education Resources: A Case Study. [Ph.D. Thesis, Wuhan University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_12","first-page":"73","article-title":"How Accessibility Shapes Land Use","volume":"25","author":"Hansen","year":"1959","journal-title":"J. Am. Plan. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1080\/02693799508902025","article-title":"GIS and Models of Accessibility Potential: An Application in Planning","volume":"9","author":"Geertman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Int. J. Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1080\/09595237100185131","article-title":"The Concept of Accessibility: A Search for an Operational Form","volume":"5","author":"Ingram","year":"1971","journal-title":"Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2007.01.014","article-title":"Assessing the spatial distribution of urban parks using GIS","volume":"82","author":"Kyushik","year":"2007","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1080\/09595237800185401","article-title":"The measurement of spatial opportunity in strategic planning","volume":"12","author":"Michael","year":"1978","journal-title":"Reg. Stud."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"105","article-title":"Spatial Decompositions, Modeling and Mapping Service Regions to Predict Access to Social Programs","volume":"6","author":"Radke","year":"2000","journal-title":"Geogr. Inf. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Wang, Q. (2019). Accessibility Analysis of Medical Services in Shanghai Based on Improved Two-Step Floating Catchment Area Method. [Master\u2019s Thesis, Wuhan University]. (In Chinese)."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"595","DOI":"10.1068\/a300595","article-title":"Assessing Spatial Equity: An Evaluation of Measures of Accessibility to Public Playgrounds","volume":"30","author":"Talen","year":"1998","journal-title":"Environ. Plan. A"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.landurbplan.2008.01.002","article-title":"Using a GIS-based network analysis to determine urban greenspace accessibility for different ethnic and religious groups","volume":"86","author":"Comber","year":"2008","journal-title":"Landsc. Urban Plan."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.2307\/2087063","article-title":"The P1 P2\/D Hypothesis: On the Intercity Movement of Persons","volume":"11","author":"Zipf","year":"1946","journal-title":"Am. Sociol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Zipf, G.K. (1949). Human Behavior and the Principle of Least Effort: An Introduction to Human Ecology, Addison-Wesley."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-1647(67)90035-4","article-title":"A statistical theory of spatial distribution models","volume":"1","author":"Wilson","year":"1967","journal-title":"Transp. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2009.06.002","article-title":"An enhanced two-step floating catchment area (E2SFCA) method for measuring spatial accessibility to primary care physicians","volume":"15","author":"Luo","year":"2009","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104134","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2025.104134","article-title":"Understanding inequalities in geographic accessibility to emergency cyclone shelters in Bangladesh under climate change","volume":"123","author":"Ahmed","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100926","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jth.2020.100926","article-title":"Examining geographical accessibility to multi-tier hospital care services for the elderly: A focus on spatial equity","volume":"19","author":"Cheng","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Transp. Health"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.healthplace.2013.08.008","article-title":"Measuring spatial accessibility to healthcare for populations with multiple transportation modes","volume":"24","author":"Mao","year":"2013","journal-title":"Health Place"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtrangeo.2025.104408","article-title":"Spatial resolution impact on public transport accessibility measurement error","volume":"129","author":"Qu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Transp. Geogr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e536","DOI":"10.1002\/hpm.2667","article-title":"Temporal availability of public health care in developing countries of the Caribbean: An improved two-step floating catchment area method for estimating spatial accessibility to health care","volume":"34","author":"Paul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Plan. Manag."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jin, H., and Lu, Y. (2022). Multi-mode huff-based 2SFCA: Examining geographical accessibility to food outlets in austin, Texas. ISPRS Int. J. Geo-Inf., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijgi11110579"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1186\/s12942-021-00263-3","article-title":"Quantifying spatial accessibility of general practitioners by applying a modified huff three-step floating catchment area (MH3SFCA) method","volume":"20","author":"Subal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int. J. Health Geogr."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106900","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scs.2025.106900","article-title":"Sense of security in age-friendly cities: Exploring the trade-off between the supply and demand for elderly care services in Hong Kong","volume":"134","author":"Mo","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sustain. Cities Soc."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jum.2025.10.003","article-title":"Accessibility and equity evaluation of elderly meal service facilities from a low-carbon travel perspective","volume":"15","author":"Zhu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Urban Manag."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100706","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tbs.2023.100706","article-title":"Towards a smart healthy city: A generalised flow-based 2SFCA method for incorporating actual mobility data in healthcare accessibility evaluation","volume":"34","author":"Chen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Travel Behav. Soc."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compenvurbsys.2011.09.002","article-title":"Exploratory calibration of a spatial interaction model using taxi GPS trajectories","volume":"36","author":"Yue","year":"2012","journal-title":"Comput. Environ. Urban Syst."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s10707-019-00390-x","article-title":"Geographical and temporal huff model calibration using taxi trajectory data","volume":"25","author":"Gong","year":"2021","journal-title":"GeoInformatica"},{"key":"ref_37","first-page":"103368","article-title":"Agent-based modelling with geographically weighted calibration for intra-urban activities simulation using taxi GPS trajectories","volume":"122","author":"Gong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int. J. Appl. Earth Obs. Geoinf."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"681","DOI":"10.1111\/tgis.12624","article-title":"Calibrating the dynamic Huff model for business analysis using location big data","volume":"24","author":"Liang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Trans. GIS"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lu, S., Shaw, S.-L., Fang, Z., Zhang, X., and Yin, L. (2017). Exploring the effects of sampling locations for calibrating the Huff model using mobile phone location data. Sustainability, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/su9010159"},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"177","article-title":"Simplified estimation procedures for MCI models","volume":"19","author":"Nakanishi","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. Mark. Res."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"120","DOI":"10.1111\/0033-0124.00210","article-title":"Modeling commuting patterns in Chicago in a GIS environment: A job accessibility perspective","volume":"52","author":"Wang","year":"2000","journal-title":"Prof. Geogr."}],"container-title":["Systems"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/14\/5\/571\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,23]],"date-time":"2026-05-23T04:39:45Z","timestamp":1779511185000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2079-8954\/14\/5\/571"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["systems14050571"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/systems14050571","relation":{},"ISSN":["2079-8954"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2079-8954","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]]}}}