{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,7]],"date-time":"2026-03-07T19:17:00Z","timestamp":1772911020371,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1748908800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Virtual Worlds"],"abstract":"<jats:p>While educational excursions are widely acknowledged to enhance student learning through immersive, real-world experiences, there is limited research on how students can best capture and retain knowledge during such activities. Traditional note-taking methods, such as pen and paper or digital devices, may be inadequate for recording spatial or multimodal information encountered in these dynamic environments. With the emergence of mixed reality (MR) technologies, there is an opportunity to explore spatial, immersive note-taking that aligns with the dynamic nature of field-based learning. This study compares the effectiveness of mixed reality, pen and paper, and digital note-taking during educational excursions. A total of 50 participants in grades 7 through 12 used the Apple Vision Pro headset for mixed reality notes, mobile phones for digital notes, and clipboards paired with a pen and paper for traditional notes. The information encountered was categorised as physical, textual, or video-based. The effectiveness was evaluated through three measures: content extracted and organised in notes, post-activity quizzes on retention and critical thinking, and participant feedback. For physical information, mixed reality significantly improved the content extraction and retention. For textual information, mixed reality yielded more content, but pen and paper outperformed it in terms of organisation. Statistically, all the note-taking methods were equally effective in the remaining aspects. Although mixed reality shows potential to be integrated into educational excursions, participant feedback highlighted discomfort with the headset, suggesting that mixed reality should complement, not replace, traditional approaches.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/virtualworlds4020023","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]],"date-time":"2025-06-03T06:21:51Z","timestamp":1748931711000},"page":"23","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Annotating the Field: Investigating the Affordances of Mixed Reality for Learning Beyond the Classroom"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3756-6625","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kenneth Y. T.","family":"Lim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Education, 1 Nanyang Walk, Singapore 637616, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Aaron J. C.","family":"Liang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Singapore 637616, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Yuyue","family":"Fang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Singapore 637616, Singapore"}]},{"given":"Bryan Z. W.","family":"Kuok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Singapore 637616, Singapore"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1177\/07356331211062925","article-title":"Longitudinal effects in the effectiveness of educational virtual field trips","volume":"60","author":"Zhao","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Educ. Comput. Res."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1159","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614524581","article-title":"The Pen is mightier than the keyboard","volume":"25","author":"Mueller","year":"2014","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"745","DOI":"10.1080\/09500693.2011.599046","article-title":"Assessing Learning in the Outdoors with the Field Trip in Natural Environments (FiNE) Framework","volume":"34","author":"Morag","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Educ."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Dabamona, S.A., and O\u011fuz, U.K. (2025, April 08). Understanding Educational School Trip: Perspective on Benefits and Challenges in Tourism and Education. Available online: https:\/\/dergipark.org.tr\/tr\/pub\/saktad\/issue\/67800\/1047608."},{"key":"ref_5","first-page":"107","article-title":"The value of outdoor learning: Evidence from research in the UK and elsewhere","volume":"87","author":"Dillon","year":"2006","journal-title":"Sch. Sci. Rev."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"908","DOI":"10.1016\/j.annals.2011.11.016","article-title":"Travel and learning: A neglected tourism research area","volume":"39","author":"Falk","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ann. Tour. Res."},{"key":"ref_7","unstructured":"(2025, April 08). Note-Taking | Center for the Advancement of Teaching Excellence | University of Illinois Chicago. (n.d.). Available online: https:\/\/teaching.uic.edu\/cate-teaching-guides\/inclusive-equity-minded-teaching-practices\/note-taking\/."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Van der Weel, F.R.R., and Van der Meer, A.L.H. (2024). Handwriting but not typewriting leads to widespread brain connectivity: A high-density EEG study with implications for the classroom. Front. Psychol., 14, Available online: https:\/\/www.frontiersin.org\/journals\/psychology\/articles\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1219945\/full.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2023.1219945"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinet, S., and Longcamp, M. (2025). Commentary: Handwriting but not typewriting leads to widespread brain connectivity: A high-density EEG study with implications for the classroom. Front. Psychol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2024.1517235"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00136532","article-title":"Student note-taking related to university examination performance","volume":"13","author":"Nye","year":"1984","journal-title":"High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"116","article-title":"Effects of Note-Taking training on reading comprehension and recall","volume":"11","author":"Rahmani","year":"2011","journal-title":"Read. Matrix"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Speicher, M., Hall, B.D., and Nebeling, M. (2019, January 4\u20139). What is Mixed Reality?. Proceedings of the ACM CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI\u201919), Glasgow, UK.","DOI":"10.1145\/3290605.3300767"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"734","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2023.10.578","article-title":"A Review of the potential use of mixed reality learning methods in comparison to traditional learning methods","volume":"227","author":"Harjana","year":"2023","journal-title":"Procedia Comput. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Almufarreh, A. (2023). Exploring the potential of mixed reality in enhancing student learning experience and academic performance: An empirical study. Systems, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/systems11060292"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Moed (2025, April 08). Annotate Space: Interpretation and Storytelling on Location. Interactive Telecommunications Program, New York University, 2002. Available online: https:\/\/www.archimuse.com\/mw2002\/abstracts\/prg_170000678.html."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1752","DOI":"10.1080\/17470218.2015.1094494","article-title":"The drawing effect: Evidence for reliable and robust memory benefits in free recall","volume":"69","author":"Wammes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Q. J. Exp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"152","article-title":"Benefits of immersive virtual reality in learning based on presence and cognitive load","volume":"114","author":"Makransky","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000241","article-title":"Learning science in immersive virtual reality","volume":"110","author":"Parong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, R.E. (2014). The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139547369"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1533","DOI":"10.1007\/s00779-013-0747-y","article-title":"Augmented reality in education: A meta-review and cross-media analysis","volume":"18","author":"Radu","year":"2014","journal-title":"Pers. Ubiquitous Comput."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"133","article-title":"Augmented reality trends in education: A systematic review of research","volume":"17","author":"Bacca","year":"2014","journal-title":"Educ. Technol. Soc."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1080\/13504622.2020.1765991","article-title":"Do pre-visit preparation and post-visit activities improve student outcomes on field trips?","volume":"26","author":"Lee","year":"2020","journal-title":"Environ. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Kiewra, K.A., and DuBois, N.F. (2025, April 08). Learning to Learn: Making the Transition from Student to Life-Long Learner. Available online: https:\/\/www.amazon.com\/Learning-Learn-Transition-Student-Life-Long\/dp\/0205263194."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"719","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-016-9459-6","article-title":"Effects of guided notes on enhancing college students\u2019 lecture note-taking quality and learning performance","volume":"36","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2008.00906.x","article-title":"Optimising the use of note-taking as an external cognitive aid for increasing learning","volume":"40","author":"Makany","year":"2009","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cedpsych.2003.12.001","article-title":"Spoken organizational lecture cues and student notetaking as facilitators of student learning","volume":"29","author":"Titsworth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Contemp. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sviridova, E., Yastrebova, E., Bakirova, G., and Rebrina, F. (2023). Immersive technologies as an innovative tool to increase academic success and motivation in higher education. Front. Educ., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/feduc.2023.1192760"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Friedman, M.C. (2025, April 08). Harvard Initiative for Learning and Teaching, and Harvard University, Notes on Note-Taking: Review of Research and Insights for Students and Instructors. Available online: https:\/\/hwpi.harvard.edu\/files\/hilt\/files\/notetaking_0.pdf."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1974.10884632","article-title":"Note taking and recall","volume":"67","author":"Fisher","year":"1974","journal-title":"J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1977.10885042","article-title":"Teaching note -taking skills to underachieving college students","volume":"71","author":"Robin","year":"1977","journal-title":"J. Educ. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1551","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-018-9849-2","article-title":"Lecture note-taking in postsecondary students with attention-deficit\/hyperactivity disorder","volume":"31","author":"Vekaria","year":"2018","journal-title":"Read. Writ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1353\/jge.2003.0006","article-title":"Notetaking in college classes: Student patterns and instructional strategies","volume":"51","author":"Williams","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Gen. Educ."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"Horwitz, S.M. (2025, April 08). Is Note-Taking More Effective with a Keyboard or a Pen?. Available online: http:\/\/scholar.colorado.edu\/honr_theses\/1369\/."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Anderson, L.W., and Krathwohl, D.R. (2025, April 08). A Taxonomy for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom\u2019s Taxonomy of Ed-ucational Objectives. Available online: http:\/\/ci.nii.ac.jp\/ncid\/BA56711765."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bissell, N., and Lemons, P.P. (2006). A new method for assessing critical thinking in the classroom. BioScience, 56.","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2006)056[0066:ANMFAC]2.0.CO;2"},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"84","article-title":"The Effect of Competences, Work Motivation, Learning Environment on Human Resource Performance","volume":"1","author":"Mulang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gold. Ratio Hum. Resour. Manag."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Nawangsari, R.F. (2025, April 08). The Effect of Cornell Note Taking Technique on the Ninth Year Students\u2019 Reading Comprehension Achievement at SMP Negeri 1 Diwek Jombang in 2010\/2011 Academic Year. Available online: https:\/\/repository.unej.ac.id\/handle\/123456789\/16387."}],"container-title":["Virtual Worlds"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-2084\/4\/2\/23\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T17:46:26Z","timestamp":1760031986000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-2084\/4\/2\/23"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]}},"alternative-id":["virtualworlds4020023"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/virtualworlds4020023","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-2084"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-2084","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,3]]}}}