{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T13:01:45Z","timestamp":1785416505896,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778457600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100021534","name":"University of Piraeus Research Center","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100021534","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/02qs84g94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Virtual Worlds"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Despite the increasing adoption of metaverse technologies, particularly in educational contexts, the cognitive impacts of students designing their own immersive experiences remain underexplored. This study addresses that gap by providing empirical baseline data on the cognitive load of students designing virtual worlds. All 100 participants were second-year undergraduate computer science students, aged 20 to 22, who completed a five-week virtual world development project using the Spatial.io platform. Cognitive load was assessed using the NASA Task Load Index (NASA-TLX), which is a measure of six dimensions: Mental Demand, Physical Demand, Temporal Demand, Performance, Effort, and Frustration. The total weighted NASA-TLX showed moderate cognitive load (M = 48.42, SD = 12.18, 95% CI [45.99, 50.85]), with a percentage of 9% of respondents indicating high cognitive load (scores &gt; 60). Temporal Demand was the highest-rated dimension (M = 14.32, SD = 3.84), followed by Mental Demand (M = 13.68, SD = 3.52), while Physical Demand was the lowest (M = 5.23, SD = 2.94). The Spearman correlation analysis indicated that there were strong correlations between Temporal Demand and Effort (\u03c1 = 0.62, p &lt; 0.001) and Temporal Demand and Mental Demand (\u03c1 = 0.58, p &lt; 0.001) with Frustration demonstrating moderate correlations with most cognitive dimensions. In this sample, the NASA-TLX showed a good internal consistency (0.82). No statistically significant difference was found in the overall workload scores or in individual subscales (p &gt; 0.05), indicating that the cognitive load experienced by male and female participants in the development of a virtual world was similar, but the small sub-sample of female participants (n = 25) reduces the statistical power of the comparison. These results provide a descriptive baseline for cognitive workload in virtual world creation led by students and provide evidence-based guidance into how educators can develop immersive development programs.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/virtualworlds5020022","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T13:10:42Z","timestamp":1778505042000},"page":"22","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Cognitive Load During Student-Created Virtual Worlds: A NASA-TLX Assessment Using Spatial.io"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"5","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0916-4979","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Dimitrios","family":"Magetos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, University of Piraeus, 18534 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3744-855X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sarandis","family":"Mitropoulos","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Science and Technology, Hellenic Open University, 26331 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6849-6693","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christos","family":"Douligeris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Informatics, University of Piraeus, 18534 Piraeus, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2010.10.020","article-title":"Educational Virtual Environments: A Ten-Year Review of Empirical Research (1999\u20132009)","volume":"56","author":"Mikropoulos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-018-0347-2","article-title":"Augmenting the Learning Experience in Primary and Secondary School Education: A Systematic Review of Recent Trends in Augmented Reality Game-Based Learning","volume":"23","author":"Pellas","year":"2019","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Toward a Definition of \u201cVirtual Worlds\u201d","volume":"1","author":"Bell","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Virtual Worlds Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2009.01038.x","article-title":"What Are the Learning Affordances of 3-D Virtual Environments?","volume":"41","author":"Dalgarno","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2140","DOI":"10.25304\/rlt.v26.2140","article-title":"Learning in Virtual Reality: Effects on Performance, Emotion and Engagement","volume":"26","author":"Allcoat","year":"2018","journal-title":"Res. Learn. Technol."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.3390\/encyclopedia2010031","article-title":"Metaverse","volume":"2","author":"Mystakidis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Encyclopedia"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2013.07.033","article-title":"Effectiveness of Virtual Reality-Based Instruction on Students\u2019 Learning Outcomes in K-12 and Higher Education: A Meta-Analysis","volume":"70","author":"Merchant","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103778","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compedu.2019.103778","article-title":"A Systematic Review of Immersive Virtual Reality Applications for Higher Education: Design Elements, Lessons Learned, and Research Agenda","volume":"147","author":"Radianti","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comput. Educ."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mystakidis, S., Berki, E., and Valtanen, J.-P. (2021). Deep and Meaningful E-Learning with Social Virtual Reality Environments in Higher Education: A Systematic Literature Review. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11052412"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1883","DOI":"10.1007\/s10639-021-10682-1","article-title":"A Systematic Mapping Review of Augmented Reality Applications to Support STEM Learning in Higher Education","volume":"27","author":"Mystakidis","year":"2022","journal-title":"Educ. Inf. Technol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2008.00900.x","article-title":"Use of Three-Dimensional (3-D) Immersive Virtual Worlds in K-12 and Higher Education Settings: A Review of the Research","volume":"41","author":"Hew","year":"2010","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"949","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8535.2011.01263.x","article-title":"A Taxonomy of Virtual Worlds Usage in Education","volume":"43","author":"Duncan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Br. J. Educ. Technol."},{"key":"ref_13","unstructured":"Papert, S., and Harel, I. (1991). Situating Constructionism. Constructionism, Ablex Publishing."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1007\/s10055-006-0039-1","article-title":"Presence: A Unique Characteristic in Educational Virtual Environments","volume":"10","author":"Mikropoulos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Virtual Real."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5501","DOI":"10.1007\/s11042-019-08348-9","article-title":"A Review of Immersive Virtual Reality Serious Games to Enhance Learning and Training","volume":"79","author":"Checa","year":"2020","journal-title":"Multimed. Tools Appl."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022193728205","article-title":"Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design","volume":"10","author":"Sweller","year":"1998","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.18870\/hlrc.v7i1.373","article-title":"Augmented Virtual Reality: How to Improve Education Systems","volume":"7","author":"Fernandez","year":"2017","journal-title":"High. Learn. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog1202_4","article-title":"Cognitive Load During Problem Solving: Effects on Learning","volume":"12","author":"Sweller","year":"1988","journal-title":"Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"261","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-019-09465-5","article-title":"Cognitive Architecture and Instructional Design: 20 Years Later","volume":"31","author":"Sweller","year":"2019","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sweller, J., Ayres, P., and Kalyuga, S. (2011). Cognitive Load Theory, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-8126-4"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2008.12.020","article-title":"Explaining the Split-Attention Effect: Is the Reduction of Extraneous Cognitive Load Accompanied by an Increase in Germane Cognitive Load?","volume":"25","author":"Cierniak","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, R.E. (2014). Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Cambridge University Press. [2nd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781139547369"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10648-020-09586-2","article-title":"The Cognitive Affective Model of Immersive Learning (CAMIL): A Theoretical Research-Based Model of Learning in Immersive Virtual Reality","volume":"33","author":"Makransky","year":"2021","journal-title":"Educ. Psychol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4115(08)62386-9","article-title":"Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research","volume":"Volume 52","author":"Hancock","year":"1988","journal-title":"Advances in Psychology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"904","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120605000909","article-title":"NASA-Task Load Index (NASA-TLX); 20 Years Later","volume":"Volume 50","author":"Hart","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"785","DOI":"10.1037\/edu0000241","article-title":"Learning Science in Immersive Virtual Reality","volume":"110","author":"Parong","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Educ. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes, Harvard University Press."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40561-022-00205-x","article-title":"Is Metaverse in Education a Blessing or a Curse: A Combined Content and Bibliometric Analysis","volume":"9","author":"Tlili","year":"2022","journal-title":"Smart Learn. Environ."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clark, R.C., Nguyen, F., and Sweller, J. (2006). Efficiency in Learning: Evidence-Based Guidelines to Manage Cognitive Load, Pfeiffer.","DOI":"10.1002\/pfi.4930450920"},{"key":"ref_30","first-page":"108853","article-title":"Immersive virtual reality learning and cognitive load: A multiple-day field study","volume":"176","author":"Reynaert","year":"2025","journal-title":"Comput. Hum. Behav."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayer, R.E., and Fiorella, L. (2021). Principles for Reducing Extraneous Processing in Multimedia Learning: Coherence, Signaling, Redundancy, Spatial Contiguity, and Temporal Contiguity Principles. The Cambridge Handbook of Multimedia Learning, Cambridge University Press. [3rd ed.].","DOI":"10.1017\/9781108894333.019"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1080\/00221546.2016.1257306","article-title":"Anatomy of an Enduring Gender Gap: The Evolution of Women\u2019s Participation in Computer Science","volume":"88","author":"Sax","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. High. Educ."},{"key":"ref_33","unstructured":"European Commission (2016). General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). Off. J. Eur. Union, L119, 1\u201388."},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Spatial Systems Inc. (2025, November 01). Spatial.io: Collaborate in Virtual Spaces. Available online: https:\/\/www.spatial.io."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Field, A. (2018). Discovering Statistics Using IBM SPSS Statistics, SAGE Publications. [5th ed.]."}],"container-title":["Virtual Worlds"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-2084\/5\/2\/22\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,13]],"date-time":"2026-05-13T04:19:18Z","timestamp":1778645958000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2813-2084\/5\/2\/22"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["virtualworlds5020022"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/virtualworlds5020022","relation":{},"ISSN":["2813-2084"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2813-2084","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]]}}}