{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,30]],"date-time":"2026-04-30T22:13:20Z","timestamp":1777587200523,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":156,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]],"date-time":"2021-12-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1640044800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001659","name":"Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["404935781"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["404935781"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001659","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Paratuberculosis (PTB) is a contagious and chronic enteric disease of ruminants and many non-ruminants caused by Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP), and is characterised by diarrhoea and progressive emaciation with consequent serious economic losses due to death, early culling, and reduced productivity. In addition, indirect economic losses may arise from trade restrictions. Besides being a production limiting disease, PTB is a potential zoonosis; MAP has been isolated from Crohn\u2019s disease patients and was associated with other human diseases, such as rheumatoid arthritis, Hashimoto\u2019s thyroiditis, Type 1 diabetes, and multiple sclerosis. Paratuberculosis in sheep and goats may be globally distributed though information on the prevalence and economic impact in many developing countries seem to be scanty. Goats are more susceptible to infection than sheep and both species are likely to develop the clinical disease. Ingestion of feed and water contaminated with faeces of MAP-positive animals is the common route of infection, which then spreads horizontally and vertically. In African countries, PTB has been described as a \u201cneglected disease\u201d, and in small ruminants, which support the livelihood of people in rural areas and poor communities, the disease was rarely reported. Prevention and control of small ruminants\u2019 PTB is difficult because diagnostic assays demonstrate poor sensitivity early in the disease process, in addition to the difficulties in identifying subclinically infected animals. Further studies are needed to provide more insight on molecular epidemiology, transmission, and impact on other animals or humans, socio-economic aspects, prevention and control of small ruminant PTB.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12010012","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,22]],"date-time":"2021-12-22T01:08:09Z","timestamp":1640135289000},"page":"12","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Paratuberculosis: The Hidden Killer of Small Ruminants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"Sanaa M.","family":"Idris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Health and Safety of Animal Products, Institute for Studies and Promotion of Animal Exports, University of Khartoum, Shambat 13314, Khartoum North, Sudan"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat 13314, Khartoum North, Sudan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3707-5087","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kamal H.","family":"Eltom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Health and Safety of Animal Products, Institute for Studies and Promotion of Animal Exports, University of Khartoum, Shambat 13314, Khartoum North, Sudan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6361-7356","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Julius B.","family":"Okuni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lonzy","family":"Ojok","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity (COVAB), Makerere University, Kampala P.O. Box 7062, Uganda"},{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Gulu University, Gulu P.O. Box 166, Uganda"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Wisal A.","family":"Elmagzoub","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Health and Safety of Animal Products, Institute for Studies and Promotion of Animal Exports, University of Khartoum, Shambat 13314, Khartoum North, Sudan"},{"name":"Department of Biology and Biotechnology, College of Applied and Industrial Sciences, University of Bahri, Alkadaro 13311, Khartoum North, Sudan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3347-6075","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmed Abd","family":"El Wahed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den, Tierkliniken 43, D-04103 Leipzig, Germany"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2120-9933","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"ElSagad","family":"Eltayeb","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine, Al Neelain University, Almogran 11111, Khartoum, Sudan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ahmed A.","family":"Gameel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Khartoum, Shambat 13314, Khartoum North, Sudan"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"West, D.M., Bru\u00e8re, A.N., and Ridler, A.L. (2009). The Sheep: Health, Disease and Production, Veterinary Continuing Education, Massey University. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"860","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-020-57679-3","article-title":"Ecological Drivers of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Detection in Mongoose (Herpestes Ichneumon) Using Is900 as Proxy","volume":"10","author":"Cunha","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_3","first-page":"529","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Slovakian Wildlife","volume":"23","author":"Curlik","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.104246","article-title":"Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis and Hepatitis E in New World Camelids in Austria","volume":"181","author":"Stanitznig","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.4314\/ovj.v8i2.10","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis: A Possible Causative Agent in Human Morbidity and Risk to Public Health Safety","volume":"8","author":"Garvey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Open Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2017.457-460","article-title":"Exploring the Potential Hazard of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis as a Cause for Crohn\u2019s Disease","volume":"10","author":"Bharathy","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garvey, M. (2020). Mycobacterium avium Paratuberculosis: A Disease Burden on the Dairy Industry. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10101773"},{"key":"ref_8","first-page":"23","article-title":"Current Diagnostic Techniques of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Domestic Ruminants","volume":"2","author":"Singh","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Agric. For. Univ."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"1","article-title":"Occurence of Paratuberculosis in African Countries: A Review","volume":"3","author":"Okuni","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Adv."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okuni, J.B., Hansen, S., Eltom, K.H., Eltayeb, E., Amanzada, A., Omega, J.A., Czerny, C.P., el Wahed, A.A., and Ojok, L. (2020). Paratuberculosis: A Potential Zoonosis and a Neglected Disease in Africa. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8071007"},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"76","article-title":"Knowledge, Attitude and Practices Towards Paratuberculosis in Cattle and Sheep in Kericho County and Konoin Sub-County, Kenya","volume":"5","author":"Omega","year":"2019","journal-title":"Afr. J. Educ. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"OIE (2019). Terrestrial Animal Health Code, World Organization for Animal Health. [28th ed.]. Volume 1, Disease, Infections and Infestations Listed by the OIE."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.1186\/s42523-021-00089-1","article-title":"Map, Johne\u2019s Disease and the Microbiome; Current Knowledge and Future Considerations","volume":"3","author":"Matthews","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Microbiome."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1470","DOI":"10.2337\/db07-1403","article-title":"Changes in Gut Microbiota Control Metabolic Endotoxemia-Induced Inflammation in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity and Diabetes in Mice","volume":"57","author":"Cani","year":"2008","journal-title":"Diabetes"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737","DOI":"10.17236\/sat00324","article-title":"Meta-Analysis to Estimate the Economic Losses Caused by Reduced Milk Yield and Reproductive Performance Associated with Bovine Paratuberculosis in Switzerland","volume":"164","author":"Rieger","year":"2021","journal-title":"Schweiz. Arch. Tierheilkd."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3123","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2020-19381","article-title":"Economic Losses Due to Johne\u2019s Disease (Paratuberculosis) in Dairy Cattle","volume":"104","author":"Rasmussen","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"61","article-title":"Epidemiological Studies on Paratuberculosis in Small Ruminants in Portugal","volume":"45","author":"Mendes","year":"2004","journal-title":"Epid\u00e9miol. Sant\u00e9 Anim."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1177\/003072709402300205","article-title":"Small Ruminants: Potential Value and Contribution to Sustainable Development","volume":"23","author":"Devendra","year":"1994","journal-title":"Outlook Agric."},{"key":"ref_19","unstructured":"Whittington, R., Donat, K., Weber, M.F., Kelton, D., Nielsen, S.S., Eisenberg, S., Arrigoni, N., Juste, R., Saez, J.L., and Dhand, N. (2019). Control of Paratuberculosis: Who, Why and How. A Review of 48 Countries. BMC Vet. Res., 15."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2006.00001.x","article-title":"Losses of Adult Sheep Due to Ovine Johne\u2019s Disease in 12 Infected Flocks over a 3-Year Period","volume":"84","author":"Bush","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_21","first-page":"11","article-title":"Managing Control Programs for Ovine Caseous Lymphadenitis and Paratuberculosis in Australia, and the Need for Persistent Vaccination","volume":"5","author":"Windsor","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Galdow, G., and Gunn, G.J. (2001). Losses Associated with Paratuberculosis in Sheep. Assessment of Surveillance and Control of Johne\u2019s Disease in Farm Animals in Gb, SAC Veterinary Division."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2016.11.013","article-title":"Impact of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis on Profit Efficiency in Semi-Extensive Dairy Sheep and Goat Farms of Apulia, Southern Italy","volume":"136","author":"Sardaro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bryant, J.M., Thibault, V.C., Smith, D.G., McLuckie, J., Heron, I., Sevilla, I.A., Biet, F., Harris, S.R., Maskell, D.J., and Bentley, S.D. (2016). Phylogenomic Exploration of the Relationships between Strains of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis. BMC Genom., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-015-2234-5"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"258","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijvsm.2018.08.001","article-title":"Genotyping Methods and Molecular Epidemiology of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis (Map)","volume":"6","author":"Fawzy","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Vet. Sci. Med."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2004.12.013","article-title":"Genetic Diversity of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Isolates from Goats Detected by Pulsed-Field Gel Electrophoresis","volume":"106","author":"Mateos","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ghosh, P., Hsu, C., Alyamani, E.J., Shehata, M.M., Al-Dubaib, M.A., Al-Naeem, A., Hashad, M., Mahmoud, O.M., Alharbi, K.B., and Al-Busadah, K. (2012). Genome-Wide Analysis of the Emerging Infection with Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in the Arabian Camels (Camelus Dromedarius). PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0031947"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"637637","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.637637","article-title":"Comparative Genomics of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Sheep Strains","volume":"8","author":"Mizzi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029916000807","article-title":"An across-Breed Genome Wide Association Analysis of Susceptibility to Paratuberculosis in Dairy Cattle","volume":"84","author":"Sallam","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Dairy Res."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-017-0468-8","article-title":"Which Phenotypic Traits of Resistance Should Be Improved in Cattle to Control Paratuberculosis Dynamics in a Dairy Herd: A Modelling Approach","volume":"48","author":"Romdhane","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.1080\/00480169.2006.36698","article-title":"The Effect of Johne\u2019s Disease on Production Traits in Romney, Merino and Merino X Romney-Cross Ewes","volume":"54","author":"Morris","year":"2006","journal-title":"N. Z. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1744-313X.2012.01092.x","article-title":"Effect of Genetic Variation in the Mhc Class Ii Drb Region on Resistance and Susceptibility to Johne\u2019s Disease in Endangered Indian Jamunapari Goats","volume":"39","author":"Singh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Int. J. Immunogenet."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-017-0440-7","article-title":"Variation in Susceptibility of Different Breeds of Sheep to Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Following Experimental Inoculation","volume":"48","author":"Begg","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.12.030","article-title":"A Long-Term Bacteriological and Immunological Study in Holstein-Friesian Cattle Experimentally Infected with Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis and Necropsy Culture Results for Holstein-Friesian Cattle, Merino Sheep and Angora Goats","volume":"122","author":"Stewart","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetimm.2020.110060","article-title":"Comparison of Sheep, Goats, and Calves as Infection Models for Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis","volume":"225","author":"Stabel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2017.18.S1.343","article-title":"Potential Biomarkers as an Indicator of Vertical Transmission of Johne\u2019s Disease in a Korean Native Cattle Farm","volume":"18","author":"Park","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"410","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.c6866","article-title":"Risk Factors Associated with Johne\u2019s Disease Test Status in Dairy Herds in Ireland","volume":"168","author":"Barrett","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9975(97)80001-1","article-title":"The Pathology and Pathogenesis of Paratuberculosis in Ruminants and Other Species","volume":"116","author":"Clarke","year":"1997","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2001.tb11980.x","article-title":"Progress Towards Understanding the Spread, Detection and Control of Mycobacterium avium Subsp Paratuberculosis in Animal Populations","volume":"79","author":"Whittington","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1990.tb07693.x","article-title":"The Pathology of Johne\u2019s Disease in Sheep","volume":"67","author":"Carrigan","year":"1990","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.139.20.498","article-title":"Serum Biochemistry and the Diagnosis of Johne\u2019s Disease (Paratuberculosis) in Sheep","volume":"139","author":"Jones","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"169","article-title":"Prevalence Ofparatuberculosis in the Dairy Goat and Dairy Sheep Industries in Ontario","volume":"57","author":"Bauman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870601800510","article-title":"Goat Paratuberculosis in Chile: First Isolation and Confirmation of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Infection in a Dairy Goat","volume":"18","author":"Kruze","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Behr, M.A. (2010). Paratuberculosis in Goats. Paratuberculosis: Organism, Disease, Control, CAB International.","DOI":"10.1079\/9781845936136.0000"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2012.03.008","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Small Ruminants in Germany","volume":"105","author":"Stau","year":"2012","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"412","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.c4454","article-title":"Estimated Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Infection in Herds of Dairy Goats in France","volume":"167","author":"Mercier","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(00)00315-1","article-title":"Paratuberculosis in Sheep: An Emerging Disease in South Africa","volume":"77","author":"Michel","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_48","unstructured":"Eamens, G.J., Marsh, I.M., Plain, K.M., and Whittington, R.J. (2015). Paratuberculosis (Johne\u2019s Disease), Australian and New Zealand Standard Diagnostic Procedures."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, L., Wang, Y., Wang, J.L., Zhao, W.H., Cheng, H.X., Ma, Y.M., Chai, H.L., Zhang, Z.S., Wang, L.F., and Miao, Z.Q. (2021). Serological Investigation and Genotyping of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Sheep and Goats in Inner Mongolia, China. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0256628"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674085","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/674085","article-title":"Estimated Prevalence of Caprine Paratuberculosis in Boer Goat Herds in Missouri, USA","volume":"2012","author":"Pithua","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.5433\/1679-0359.2015v36n1p267","article-title":"Epidemiological Characterization and Risk Factors Associated with Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Infection in Dairy Goats in the Brazilian Semiarid Region","volume":"36","author":"Freitas","year":"2015","journal-title":"Semin. Ci\u00eancias Agr\u00e1rias"},{"key":"ref_52","first-page":"581","article-title":"Proportional Mortality: A Study of 152 Goats Submitted for Necropsy from 13 Goat Herds in Quebec, with a Special Focus on Caseous Lymphadenitis","volume":"54","author":"Debien","year":"2013","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2011.07.007","article-title":"Control of Paratuberculosis in Small Ruminants","volume":"27","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_54","first-page":"41","article-title":"Isolation of M. Paratuberculosis from Goats in Sudan","volume":"25","author":"Abbas","year":"1986","journal-title":"Sudan J. Vet. Sci. Anim. Husb."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"213","article-title":"Paratuberculosis in Sheep Flocks in Morocco: A Serological, Microscopical and Cultural Survey","volume":"43","author":"Benazzi","year":"1996","journal-title":"Zent. Vet. B"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Elsohaby, I., Fayez, M., Alkafafy, M., Refaat, M., Al-Marri, T., Alaql, F.A., al Amer, A.S., Abdallah, A., and Elmoslemany, A. (2021). Serological and Molecular Characterization of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis (Map) from Sheep, Goats, Cattle and Camels in the Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020323"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.17221\/2947-VETMED","article-title":"Pathology of Subclinical Paratuberculosis (Johne\u2019s Disease) in Awassi Sheep with Reference to Its Occurrence in Jordan","volume":"55","author":"Hailat","year":"2010","journal-title":"Veterin\u00e1rn\u00ed Med."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101526","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2020.101526","article-title":"Ovine Paratuberculosis: Seroprevalence and Comparison of Fecal Culture and Direct Fecal Pcr Assay","volume":"74","author":"Selim","year":"2021","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-014-0656-8","article-title":"Systematic Review of the Prevalence of Paratuberculosis in Cattle, Sheep, and Goats in Latin America and the Caribbean","volume":"46","author":"Ramirez","year":"2014","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1970","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.559","article-title":"Comparison of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Infection in Cattle, Sheep and Goats in the Khuzestan Province of Iran: Results of a Preliminary Survey","volume":"7","author":"Borujeni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638713490688","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Confirmed Following Serological Surveillance of Small Ruminants in Grenada, West Indies","volume":"25","author":"Kumthekar","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870701900117","article-title":"Diagnosis of Paratuberculosis by Fecal Culture and Elisa on Milk and Serum Samples in Two Types of Chilean Dairy Goat Herds","volume":"19","author":"Salgado","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_63","first-page":"2319","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Paratuberculosis in Goats and Sheep in Arusha, Northern Tanzania","volume":"3","author":"Mpenda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_64","first-page":"82","article-title":"Seroepidemiology of Goat Paratuberculosis in Five Municipalities of Central Veracruz, Mexico","volume":"15","year":"2012","journal-title":"Trop. Subtrop. Agroecosyst."},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Callejas-Garc\u00eda, S.A. (2013). Estudio Epidemiol\u00f3gico De La Paratuberculosis Caprina En La Zona Centro Del Estado De Veracruz, Tesis M\u00e9dico Veterinario Zootecnista, Universidad Veracruzana."},{"key":"ref_66","first-page":"s28","article-title":"Incidence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in Mehsana Breed of Goats from South Gujarat Using Multiple Tests","volume":"1","author":"Singh","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.4067\/S0301-732X2015000300017","article-title":"Isolation and Characterization of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in Korean Black Goat (Capra Hircus Aegagrus)","volume":"47","author":"Kim","year":"2015","journal-title":"Arch. Med. Vet."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(03)00060-6","article-title":"Prevalence of and Carcass Condemnation from Maedi\u2013Visna, Paratuberculosis and Caseous Lymphadenitis in Culled Sheep from Quebec, Canada","volume":"59","author":"Julie","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.243","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Anti-Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Antibodies in Female Sheep in Tunisia","volume":"6","author":"Khbou","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.2298\/VETGL1404165V","article-title":"Prevalence of Paratuberculosis Infection in Sheep","volume":"68","author":"Vidic","year":"2014","journal-title":"Vet. Glas."},{"key":"ref_71","first-page":"782875","article-title":"Ovine Paratuberculosis: A Seroprevalence Study in Dairy Flocks Reared in the Marche Region, Italy","volume":"2011","author":"Rita","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2006.07.009","article-title":"Seroprevalence of Ovine Paratuberculosis Infection in the Northeast of Portugal","volume":"71","author":"Coelho","year":"2007","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101533","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cimid.2020.101533","article-title":"Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis (Map) Infection in Suspected Diarrhoeic Buffaloes and Cattle Reporting at Veterinary University in India","volume":"73","author":"Sharma","year":"2020","journal-title":"Comp. Immunol. Microbiol. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"504","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2004.tb11171.x","article-title":"Intrauterine and Transmammary Transmission of Mycobacterium avium Subsp Paratuberculosis in Sheep","volume":"82","author":"Lambeth","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_75","unstructured":"Henderson, D.C., Caldow, G., and Low, C.J. (2000). Paratuberculosis in Cattle: Pathology and Clinical Disease. Assessment of Surveillance and Control of Johne\u2019s Disease in Farm Animals in GB, Scottish Agricultural College, Veterinary Science Division."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1016\/0378-1135(90)90076-8","article-title":"The Sensitivity and Specificity of a Modified Elisa for the Diagnosis of Johne\u2019s Disease from a Field Trial in Cattle","volume":"25","author":"Milner","year":"1990","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9975(96)80017-X","article-title":"The Pathology of Ovine Paratuberculosis: Gross and Histological Changes in the Intestine and Other Tissues","volume":"114","author":"Clarke","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.1053\/jcpa.1999.0368","article-title":"Classification of Lesions Observed in Natural Cases of Paratuberculosis in Goats","volume":"122","author":"Corpa","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1177\/104063879100300425","article-title":"Ruminant Paratuberculosis\u2014A Century of Progress and Frustration","volume":"3","author":"Kreeger","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9975(96)80001-6","article-title":"Description and Classification of Different Types of Lesion Associated with Natural Paratuberculosis Infection in Sheep","volume":"114","author":"Badiola","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_81","first-page":"787","article-title":"Paucibacillary Paratuberculosis in a Goat","volume":"43","author":"Catton","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_82","first-page":"749","article-title":"Ovine Paratuberculosis-a Histopathological Study from Pakistan","volume":"23","author":"Sikandar","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anim. Plant Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"685","DOI":"10.56093\/ijans.v87i6.71061","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Fat, Is900 Pcr and Microscopy Vis a Vis Histo-Pathology for the Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp Paratuberculosis Infection in Tissues of Goats Naturally Died in Herds Endemic for Johne\u2019s Disease","volume":"87","author":"Chaturvedi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","first-page":"6067","article-title":"Pathomorphological Studies on Ovine Paratuberculosis in An Organised Sheep Farm in Karnataka","volume":"17","author":"Srikanth","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Cell Tissue Res."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"2012","article-title":"Histopathological and RT-PCR Detection of Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis in Tissues of Clinically Suspected Small Ruminants","volume":"4","author":"Hamid","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Life Sci. Sci. Res."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"441","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)30416-3","article-title":"Paratuberculosis in Small Ruminants, Deer, and South American Camelids","volume":"12","author":"Stehman","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.12681\/jhvms.15601","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis by Several Diagnostics Techniques in Clinical Suspected Sheep","volume":"68","author":"Coelho","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Hell. Vet. Med. Soc."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1993.54.01.13","article-title":"Serodiagnosis of Paratuberculosis in Sheep by Use of Agar Gel Immunodiffusion","volume":"54","author":"Shulaw","year":"1993","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"253","article-title":"Goat Paratuberculosis in Shiraz: Histopathological and Molecular Approaches","volume":"9","author":"Derakhshandeh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Forum"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2019.01.005","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Different Diagnostic Techniques for Detection of Naturally Occurring Paratuberculosis in Gaddi Goats","volume":"174","author":"Thakur","year":"2019","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.1136\/inpract.22.3.146","article-title":"Johne\u2019s Disease in Sheep and Goats","volume":"22","author":"Greig","year":"2000","journal-title":"In Practice"},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"Marin, G.J.F., Chavez, G., and Ajuriz, J.J. (October, January 28). Prevalence of Paratuberculosis in Infected Goat Flocks and Comparison of Different Methods of Diagnosis. Proceedings of the Third International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Orlando, FL, USA."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"36","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.05.002","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Ovine Faeces by Direct Quantitative Pcr Has Similar or Greater Sensitivity Compared to Radiometric Culture","volume":"125","author":"Kawaji","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2016.1196508","article-title":"Trends and Advances in the Diagnosis and Control of Paratuberculosis in Domestic Livestock","volume":"36","author":"Chaubey","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(00)00317-5","article-title":"The Histopathologic Diagnosis of Subclinical Johne\u2019s Disease in N. American Bison (Bison Bison)","volume":"77","author":"Buergelt","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Whittington, R.J., Begg, D.J., de Silva, K., Purdie, A.C., Dhand, N.K., and Plain, K.M. (2017). Case Definition Terminology for Paratuberculosis (Johne\u2019s Disease). BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-1254-6"},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2007.12.011","article-title":"Ante Mortem Diagnosis of Paratuberculosis: A Review of Accuracies of Elisa, Interferon-Gamma Assay and Faecal Culture Techniques","volume":"129","author":"Nielsen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hosseiniporgham, S., Cubeddu, T., Rocca, S., and Sechi, L.A. (2020). Identification of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis (Map) in Sheep Milk, a Zoonotic Problem. Microorganisms, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms8091264"},{"key":"ref_99","unstructured":"OIE (2018). Principles and Methods of Validation of Diagnostic Assays for Infectious. Manual of Diagnstic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals, World Organization for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"133","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.20.1.1275","article-title":"Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis: Pathogen, Pathogenesis and Diagnosis","volume":"20","author":"Manning","year":"2001","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2019.00509","article-title":"Estimation of Performance Characteristics of Analytical Methods for Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Detection in Dairy Products","volume":"10","author":"Butot","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"309","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(00)00316-3","article-title":"Parallel Faecal and Organ Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Culture of Different Productivity Types of Cattle","volume":"77","author":"Pavlik","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"247","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2003.07.004","article-title":"Experimental Infection of Weaner Sheep with S Strain Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis","volume":"96","author":"Reddacliff","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.36.3.701-707.1998","article-title":"Rapid Detection of Mycobacterium Paratuberculosis in Clinical Samples from Ruminants and in Spiked Environmental Samples by Modified Bactec 12b Radiometric Culture and Direct Confirmation by Is900 Pcr","volume":"36","author":"Whittington","year":"1998","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1077","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.37.4.1077-1083.1999","article-title":"Evaluation of Modified Bactec 12b Radiometric Medium and Solid Media for Culture of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis from Sheep","volume":"37","author":"Whittington","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2006.01.008","article-title":"Molecular Epidemiology of Types I\/Iii Strains of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Isolated from Goats and Cattle","volume":"115","author":"Alvarez","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S88","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmyco.2016.09.005","article-title":"Comparative Evaluation of Diagnostic Tests for the Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in the Tissues of Sheep Affected with Distinct Pathology of Paratuberculosis","volume":"5","author":"Sonawane","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Mycobacteriol."},{"key":"ref_108","first-page":"27","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Using Nested Polymerase Chain Reaction (Npcr)","volume":"74","author":"Ibrahim","year":"2004","journal-title":"Veterinarski Arhiv."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rachlin, J., Ding, C., Cantor, C., and Kasif, S. (2005). Computational Tradeoffs in Multiplex Pcr Assay Design for Snp Genotyping. BMC Genom., 6.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2164-6-102"},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2004.10.018","article-title":"Evaluation of Multiple Genomic Targets for Identification and Confirmation of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Isolates Using Real-Time Pcr","volume":"105","author":"Rajeev","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3590","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2007-0015","article-title":"Prevalence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in Swiss Raw Milk Cheeses Collected at the Retail Level","volume":"90","author":"Stephan","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.17221\/1859-VETMED","article-title":"Detection Methods for Mycobacterium avium Subsp Paratuberculosis in Milk and Milk Products: A Review","volume":"53","author":"Slana","year":"2008","journal-title":"Veterin\u00e1rn\u00ed Med."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.14284","article-title":"Development and Validation of a Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification Assay\u2014A Rapid and Sensitive Detection Tool for Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis in Small Ruminants","volume":"127","author":"Sange","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.20506\/rst.24.3.1634","article-title":"Pcr-Rea Genotype of Paratuberculosis Strains Isolated from Different Host Species and Geographical Locations","volume":"24","author":"Sevilla","year":"2005","journal-title":"Rev. Sci. Tech."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2003.tb11437.x","article-title":"Specificity of Absorbed Elisa and Agar Gel Immuno-Diffusion Tests for Paratuberculosis in Goats with Observations About Use of These Tests in Infected Goats","volume":"81","author":"Whittington","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_116","first-page":"48","article-title":"Evaluation of Efficacy of the Species Specific Antigens in the Diagnosis of Ovine and Caprine Paratuberculosis Using Plate Elisa","volume":"8","author":"Kumar","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Immunol. Immunopathol."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"251","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-007-0046-2","article-title":"Evaluation of an Indigenous Elisa for Diagnosis of Johne\u2019s Disease and Its Comparison with Commercial Kits","volume":"47","author":"Singh","year":"2007","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"850","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2000.tb10508.x","article-title":"Sensitivity and Specificity of Two Serological Tests for the Detection of Ovine Paratuberculosis","volume":"78","author":"Hope","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_119","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2000.tb11902.x","article-title":"Vaccination against Paratuberculosis of Lambs Already Infected Experimentally with Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis","volume":"78","author":"Gwozdz","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_120","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2003.08.010","article-title":"Evaluation of an Absorbed Elisa and an Agar-Gel Immuno-Diffusion Test for Ovine Paratuberculosis in Sheep in Australia","volume":"61","author":"Sergeant","year":"2003","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_121","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"553","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2006018","article-title":"Sensitivity and Specificity of the Agar-Gel-Immunodiffusion Test, Elisa and the Skin Test for Detection of Paratuberculosis in United States Midwest Sheep Populations","volume":"37","author":"Gardner","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_122","first-page":"25","article-title":"The Efficacy of Elisa Commercial Kits for the Screening of Equine Infectious Anemia Virus Infection","volume":"47","author":"Alvarez","year":"2015","journal-title":"Rev. Argent. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_123","first-page":"209","article-title":"Agreement between Elisa and Complement Fixation Test Used for Diagnosing of Paratuberculosis in Goats","volume":"11","author":"Kaba","year":"2008","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_124","first-page":"4172","article-title":"Paratuberculosis: Diagnostic Methods and Their Constraints","volume":"6","author":"Maroudam","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_125","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"461","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.1990.51.03.461","article-title":"Comparison of the Complement-Fixation and Agar Gel Immunodiffusion Tests for Diagnosis of Subclinical Bovine Paratuberculosis","volume":"51","author":"Sherman","year":"1990","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_126","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1134","DOI":"10.1128\/jcm.30.5.1134-1139.1992","article-title":"Evaluation of Four Serological Tests for Bovine Paratuberculosis","volume":"30","author":"Sockett","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_127","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(98)00311-3","article-title":"Comparison of Serological Tests and Faecal Culture for the Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Infection in Cattle and Analysis of the Antigens Involved","volume":"66","author":"Reichel","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_128","unstructured":"Singh, S.V., Singh, A.V., Singh, R., Sandhu, K.S., and Gupta, V.K. (2005, January 14\u201317). Survey of Ruminant Population of Northern India for the Incidence of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Infection. Proceedings of the Eighth International Colloquium on Paratuberculosis, Denmark, Copenhagen."},{"key":"ref_129","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.1177\/104063870201400305","article-title":"Evaluation of Two Absorbed Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assays and a Complement Fixation Test as Replacements for Fecal Culture in the Detection of Cows Shedding Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis","volume":"14","author":"Kalis","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_130","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.3923\/jbs.2014.124.133","article-title":"Incidence of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis in Mehsani and Surti Goats of Indian Origin Using Multiple Diagnostic Tests","volume":"14","author":"Barad","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_131","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.14737\/journal.aavs\/2016\/4.10.506.512","article-title":"Prevalence of Ovine Johne\u2019s Disease in Bannur Breed of Sheep in Organized Farm Using Multiple Diagnostic Tests","volume":"4","author":"Mukartal","year":"2016","journal-title":"Adv. Anim. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_132","first-page":"709","article-title":"Detection of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis","volume":"54","author":"Biswal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_133","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1186\/1476-8518-9-8","article-title":"Paratuberculosis Control: A Review with a Focus on Vaccination","volume":"9","author":"Bastida","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Immune Based Ther. Vaccines"},{"key":"ref_134","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1080\/01652176.2019.1667042","article-title":"Vaccine Approaches for the \u2019Therapeutic Management\u2019 of Mycobacterium avium Subspecies Paratuberculosis Infection in Domestic Livestock","volume":"39","author":"Gupta","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Q."},{"key":"ref_135","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)30408-4","article-title":"Transmission of Paratuberculosis","volume":"12","author":"Sweeney","year":"1996","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_136","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2009.01.007","article-title":"Evidence for Age Susceptibility of Cattle to Johne\u2019s Disease","volume":"184","author":"Windsor","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_137","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"552","DOI":"10.1111\/ecca.12137","article-title":"Housing Wealth Effects: Evidence from an Australian Panel","volume":"82","author":"Windsor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Economica"},{"key":"ref_138","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2006.10.004","article-title":"Simulated Economic Effects of Improving the Sensitivity of a Diagnostic Test in Paratuberculosis Control","volume":"78","author":"Kudahl","year":"2007","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_139","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2006.02.002","article-title":"Decision Analysis Model for Paratuberculosis Control in Commercial Dairy Herds","volume":"75","author":"Dorshorst","year":"2006","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_140","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kirkeby, C., Graesboll, K., Nielsen, S.S., Christiansen, L.E., Toft, N., and Halasa, T. (2016). Adaptive Test Schemes for Control of Paratuberculosis in Dairy Cows. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0167219"},{"key":"ref_141","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2005.12.021","article-title":"Efficacy of a Killed Vaccine for the Control of Paratuberculosis in Australian Sheep Flocks","volume":"115","author":"Reddacliff","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_142","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-1135(00)00311-4","article-title":"Paratuberculosis in Iceland: Epidemiology and Control Measures, Past and Present","volume":"77","author":"Fridriksdottir","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_143","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2012.11.026","article-title":"Understanding the Efficacy of Vaccination in Controlling Ovine Paratuberculosis","volume":"110","author":"Windsor","year":"2013","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_144","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Serrano, M., Elguezabal, N., Sevilla, I.A., Geijo, M.V., Molina, E., Arrazuria, R., Urkitza, A., Jones, G.J., Vordermeier, M., and Garrido, J.M. (2017). Tuberculosis Detection in Paratuberculosis Vaccinated Calves: New Alternatives against Interference. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169735"},{"key":"ref_145","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2016.08.064","article-title":"Changes in Prevalence of Ovine Paratuberculosis Following Vaccination with Gudair(R): Results of a Longitudinal Study Conducted over a Decade","volume":"34","author":"Dhand","year":"2016","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_146","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gautam, M., Anderson, P., Ridler, A., Wilson, P., and Heuer, C. (2018). Economic Cost of Ovine Johne\u2019s Disease in Clinically Affected New Zealand Flocks and Benefit-Cost of Vaccination. Vet. Sci., 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci5010016"},{"key":"ref_147","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"692","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.13732","article-title":"Influence of Vaccination against Paratuberculosis on the Diagnosis of Caprine Tuberculosis During Official Eradication Programmes in Castilla Y Leon (Spain)","volume":"68","author":"Espinosa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_148","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.3923\/ijp.2017.145.155","article-title":"\u2018Therapeutic Management\u2019 of Incurable Paratuberculosis Using \u2018indigenous Vaccine\u2019 in Goatherds, Endemically Infected with Johne\u2019s Disease","volume":"13","author":"Singh","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_149","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Luttikholt, S., Lievaart-Peterson, K., Gonggrijp, M., Aalberts, M., van Schaik, G., and Vellema, P. (2019). Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Elisa Responses in Milk Samples from Vaccinated and Nonvaccinated Dairy Goat Herds in The Netherlands. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci6020058"},{"key":"ref_150","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.smallrumres.2005.07.044","article-title":"Research into Vaccination against Ovine Johne\u2019s Disease in Australia","volume":"62","author":"Windsor","year":"2006","journal-title":"Small Rumin. Res."},{"key":"ref_151","unstructured":"Reddacliff, L.A. (2005). Field Evaluation of Ojd Control Using Gudair, Meat and Livestock Australia Ltd."},{"key":"ref_152","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2005.12.019","article-title":"Mycobacterial 70 Kd Heat-Shock Protein Is an Effective Subunit Vaccine against Bovine Paratuberculosis","volume":"24","author":"Koets","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_153","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4783","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vaccine.2008.07.009","article-title":"Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of DNA Vaccines Encoding Map0586c and Map4308c of Mycobacterium avium Subsp. Paratuberculosis Secretome","volume":"26","author":"Roupie","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vaccine"},{"key":"ref_154","unstructured":"Marcel, A., Behr, M.A., Stevenson, K., and Kapur, K. (2020). Paratuberculosis Vaccines and Vaccination. Paratuberculosis: Organism, Disease, Control, CABI International."},{"key":"ref_155","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"176","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygeno.2010.01.001","article-title":"A Principal Component Regression Based Genome Wide Analysis Approach Reveals the Presence of a Novel Qtl on Bta7 for Map Resistance in Holstein Cattle","volume":"95","author":"Pant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Genomics"},{"key":"ref_156","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"559","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2011.07.003","article-title":"Genetic Susceptibility to Paratuberculosis","volume":"27","author":"Kirkpatrick","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/12\/1\/12\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T07:50:49Z","timestamp":1760169049000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/12\/1\/12"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]]},"references-count":156,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ani12010012"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani12010012","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,21]]}}}