{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T04:19:07Z","timestamp":1780719547350,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"21","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]],"date-time":"2022-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1667260800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Utah Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>This retrospective case series summarized the primary causes of death in 857 dairy cattle necropsied from 2008 to 2019 at the Utah Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory, from dairy farms in Utah (76%), Idaho (16%) or other states (8%), primarily in the U.S. Intermountain West. Of cattle with age provided, 74% matched with body weight based estimates for those with no age stated. Cattle ranged from fetuses at 60 days of gestation to 9 years old. Primary cause of mortality was diagnosed in 833 cattle (97%); no cause was evident in 24 cattle (3%). Sexes were female 620 (72%), male 214 (25%), not recorded 23 (3%). Seven diseases killed 80% of the animals: gastrointestinal disease (most enteritis\/colitis) 318 (37%); pneumonia 166 (19%); abortion 96 (11%), peritonitis 30 (4%), omphalophlebitis (navel ill) 27 (3%), abomasitis 23 (3%), and metritis 23 (3%). Etiologic agents and specific causes varied with age categories of the animals. Young calves that died from dystocia, omphalophlebitis, or congenital abnormality often presented with no suspicion of those causes by the owners because of no external signs. Some important fatal diseases of adult dairy cows that are often diagnosed ante-mortem were diagnosed at necropsy with no suspicion by those submitting the carcasses: metritis, hardware disease, and displaced abomasum. Multicentric lymphoma was a relatively important cause of death in cows more than 4 years old. Despite use of a toxicology laboratory, toxicity was only diagnosed as causing 1% of the deaths across all ages of dairy cattle. There were numerous other causes of mortality diagnosed as well. Necropsy is a vital tool to diagnose causes of death in dairy cattle and can guide changes in management or preventive practices to reduce the rate of deaths in dairy herds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12213001","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,2]],"date-time":"2022-11-02T06:49:02Z","timestamp":1667371742000},"page":"3001","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":5,"title":["Causes of Mortality of Dairy Cattle Diagnosed by Complete Necropsy"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"12","author":[{"given":"David J.","family":"Wilson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Dairy and Veterinary Sciences Department, Utah State University, 4815 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Emma Jane","family":"Kelly","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Dairy and Veterinary Sciences Department, Utah State University, 4815 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Savannah","family":"Gucwa","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Dairy and Veterinary Sciences Department, Utah State University, 4815 Old Main Hill, Logan, UT 84322, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5798","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2012-5625","article-title":"Necropsy as a means to gain additional information about causes of dairy cow deaths","volume":"95","author":"Thomsen","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1954","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2008-1505","article-title":"A necropsy-based descriptive study of dairy cow deaths on a Colorado dairy","volume":"92","author":"McConnel","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4415","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-15527","article-title":"Clarifying dairy calf mortality phenotypes through postmortem analysis","volume":"102","author":"McConnel","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1024754003432","article-title":"Aetiology of bovine abortion in Argentina","volume":"5","author":"Campero","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03548180","article-title":"Abortion and calf mortality in Danish cattle herds","volume":"34","author":"Agerholm","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"977","DOI":"10.1007\/s42770-021-00440-3","article-title":"Causes of neonatal calf diarrhea and mortality in pasture-based dairy herds in Uruguay: A farm-matched case-control study","volume":"52","author":"Caffarena","year":"2021","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2717","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268817001224","article-title":"Periurban outbreaks of bovine calf scours in Northern India caused by Cryptosporidium in association with other enteropathogens","volume":"145","author":"Brar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-021-00187-1","article-title":"Association between clinical respiratory signs, lung lesions detected by thoracic ultrasonography and growth performance in pre-weaned dairy calves","volume":"74","author":"McGee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Irish Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7306","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-14774","article-title":"Epidemiology of bovine respiratory disease (BRD) in preweaned calves on California dairies: The BRD 10K study","volume":"102","author":"Dubrovsky","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1051\/vetres:2003023","article-title":"Severity of E. coli mastitis is mainly determined by cow factors","volume":"34","author":"Burvenich","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","first-page":"125","article-title":"Fatal mastitis of dairy cows: A retrospective study","volume":"48","author":"Hazlett","year":"1984","journal-title":"Can. J. Comp. Med."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"263","DOI":"10.1186\/BF03548190","article-title":"Calf diseases and mortality in Swedish dairy herds","volume":"34","author":"Olsson","year":"1993","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.2011.00692.x","article-title":"Prevalence of major enteric pathogens in Australian dairy calves with diarrhoea","volume":"89","author":"Izzo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"362","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.163.12.362","article-title":"Prevalence of four enteropathogens in the faeces of young diarrhoeic dairy calves in Switzerland","volume":"163","author":"Uhde","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"946","DOI":"10.1292\/jvms.22-0056","article-title":"Prevalence of respiratory bacterial pathogens and associated management factors in dairy calves in Taiwan","volume":"84","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109135","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2021.109135","article-title":"Occurrence of major and minor pathogens in calves diagnosed with bovine respiratory disease","volume":"259","author":"Kudirkiene","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1016\/j.prevetmed.2011.12.007","article-title":"Factors affecting calf mortality in Iranian Holstein dairy herds","volume":"104","author":"Azizzadeh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1751","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2006-295","article-title":"Impacts of dystocia on health and survival of dairy calves","volume":"90","author":"Lombard","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"1120","article-title":"Congenital cardiac defects in calves","volume":"47","author":"Gopal","year":"1986","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"95","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9975(87)90133-2","article-title":"Cleft palate, brachygnathia inferior, and mandibular oligodontia in a Holstein calf","volume":"97","author":"Griffith","year":"1987","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.645537","article-title":"Factors affecting the welfare of unweaned dairy calves destined for early slaughter and abattoir animal-based indicators reflecting their welfare on-farm","volume":"8","author":"Boyle","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2659","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2017-13581","article-title":"Risk factors associated with mortality at a milk-fed veal calf facility: A prospective cohort study","volume":"101","author":"Renaud","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9418","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2020-18177","article-title":"A survey of management practices that influence calf welfare and an estimation of the annual calf mortality risk in pastured dairy herds in Uruguay","volume":"103","author":"Schild","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_24","first-page":"1227","article-title":"Gross postmortem and histologic examination findings from abortion losses and calf mortalities in western Canadian beef herds","volume":"51","author":"Waldner","year":"2010","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"857","article-title":"Clostridial abomasal disease in Connecticut dairy calves","volume":"50","author":"Nyaoke","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1018","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15726","article-title":"Abomasitis in calves: A retrospective cohort study of 23 cases (2006\u20132016)","volume":"34","author":"Guarnieri","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(97)00059-7","article-title":"Calf and disease factors affecting growth in female holstein calves in Florida, USA","volume":"33","author":"Donovan","year":"1998","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.15232\/pas.2017-01625","article-title":"Case study: Control of bovine respiratory disease in dairy calves with tulathromycin and effect on calf health and performance from 0 to 4 months of age","volume":"33","author":"Hill","year":"2017","journal-title":"Prof. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-5877(01)00208-2","article-title":"An economic model to calculate farm-specific losses due to bovine respiratory disease in dairy heifers","volume":"51","author":"Jalvingh","year":"2001","journal-title":"Prev. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvfa.2010.04.004","article-title":"Bacterial pathogens of the bovine respiratory disease complex","volume":"26","author":"Griffin","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, X., Yi, X., Zhuang, H., Deng, Z., and Ma, C. (2022). Invited review: Antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in pathogens associated with diarrhea and pneumonia in dairy calves. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12060771"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"79","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-141603137-6.50007-7","article-title":"Respiratory Diseases","volume":"2","author":"Divers","year":"2008","journal-title":"Rebhun\u2019s Dis. Dairy Cattle"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2017.05.042","article-title":"Immune response in bovine neosporosis: Protection or contribution to the pathogenesis of abortion","volume":"109","year":"2017","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"933","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2015.11.001","article-title":"Evaluation of bovine abortion cases and tissue suitability for identification of infectious agents in California diagnostic laboratory cases from 2007 to 2012","volume":"85","author":"Clothier","year":"2016","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.2007.tb03031.x","article-title":"Liver abscesses in Holstein dairy cattle: 18 cases (1992\u20132003)","volume":"21","author":"Fecteau","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_36","first-page":"171","article-title":"Perforated abomasal ulcers in adult dairy cows","volume":"184","author":"Palmer","year":"1984","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dorso, L., Rouault, M., Barbotin, C., Chartier, C., and Assi\u00e9, S. (2021). Infectious bovine respiratory diseases in adult cattle: An extensive necropsic and etiological study. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11082280"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7345","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2018-15383","article-title":"Economic comparison of systemic antimicrobial therapies for metritis in dairy cows","volume":"102","author":"Lima","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4656","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2015-10094","article-title":"Relationship between Escherichia coli virulence factors and postpartum metritis in dairy cows","volume":"99","author":"Fairbrother","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moreno, C.G., Luque, A.T., Oliszewski, R., Rosa, R.J., and Otero, M.C. (2020). Characterization of native Escherichia coli populations from bovine vagina of healthy heifers and cows with postpartum uterine disease. PLoS ONE, 15.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0228294"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhao, S., Li, C., Hsu, C.-H., Tyson, G.H., Strain, E., Tate, H., Tran, T.-T., Abbott, J., and McDermott, P.F. (2020). Comparative genomic analysis of 450 strains of Salmonella enterica isolated from diseased animals. Genes, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/genes11091025"},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"491","article-title":"A field study of culling and mortality in beef cows from western Canada","volume":"50","author":"Waldner","year":"2009","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1186\/s13028-018-0410-8","article-title":"Treatment of 503 cattle with traumatic reticuloperitonitis","volume":"60","author":"Braun","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Vet. Scand."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, X.-W., Xu, Q.-S., Zhang, R.-H., Yang, W., Li, Y., Zhang, Y.-M., Tian, Y., Zhang, M., Wang, Z., and Liu, G.-W. (2018). Ultrasonographic findings in cows with left displacement of abomasum, before and after reposition surgery. BMC Vet. Res., 14.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-018-1358-7"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tschoner, T., Zablotski, Y., and Feist, M. (2022). Retrospective evaluation of method of treatment, laboratory findings, and concurrent diseases in dairy cattle diagnosed with left displacement of the abomasum during time of hospitalization. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12131649"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"53","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1751-0813.1986.tb02923.x","article-title":"Left abomasal displacement and ulceration in an eight-week-old calf","volume":"63","author":"Hawkins","year":"1986","journal-title":"Aust. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1177\/030098588101800408","article-title":"Histocytology of lymphoid tumors in the dog, cat and cow","volume":"18","author":"Valli","year":"1981","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2407","DOI":"10.2527\/jas1988.6692407x","article-title":"Toxicoses in livestock from the hemlocks (Conium and Cicuta spp.)","volume":"66","author":"Panter","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1177\/1040638713489981","article-title":"Characterization of cardiac lesions in calves after ingestion of Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata)","volume":"25","author":"Sula","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Diagn. Investig."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.117.19.497","article-title":"Onion poisoning of young cattle","volume":"117","author":"Verhoeff","year":"1985","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/12\/21\/3001\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,11]],"date-time":"2025-10-11T01:07:19Z","timestamp":1760144839000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/12\/21\/3001"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]]},"references-count":50,"journal-issue":{"issue":"21","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,11]]}},"alternative-id":["ani12213001"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani12213001","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,11,1]]}}}