{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,16]],"date-time":"2026-09-16T12:38:52Z","timestamp":1789562332705,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":31,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]],"date-time":"2023-11-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1700956800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>There has, to date, been no systematic study of the various ways in which birds blink. Digital video recordings were made, and studied using still frames, of 524 bird species, mainly in zoos but also in the wild. Videos on 106 species from various sites on the internet were studied, some of which we had also videoed, giving a total of 591 (out of a possible 10,000) species from all 43 orders and 125 (out of a possible 249) families. Digital video recordings were also made of 15 (out of a possible 24) species of crocodile. Three types of blink were observed in birds: (1) Nictitating membrane blinks were rapid and brief (phasic) and occurred mainly on head movement. (2) Upper lid blinks were seen in parrots, owls, pigeons and some others. These were also rapid and brief and accompanied nictitating membrane blinks. (3) Lower lid blinks were slow and sustained (tonic) and occurred with drowsiness and preening. Nictitating membrane blinks and lower lid blinks were seen in crocodiles but not upper lid blinks. Globe retraction, where the eyeball is pulled into the orbit of the skull during a blink, was seen in crocodiles but not birds. Phasic blinks remove debris and moisten the cornea, essential for allowing oxygen to diffuse into the cornea, which has no blood supply. Tonic blinks are probably mainly protective. The orders of birds which have upper lid blinking are not closely related and this feature is probably the result of convergent evolution.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13233656","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,27]],"date-time":"2023-11-27T03:35:06Z","timestamp":1701056106000},"page":"3656","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["The Various Ways in Which Birds Blink"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"13","author":[{"given":"John G. L.","family":"Morris","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney 2145, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jesse J.","family":"Parsons","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Independent Researcher, Sydney 2037, Australia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2220404120","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2220404120","article-title":"The origin of blinking in both mudskippers and tetrapods is linked to life on land","volume":"120","author":"Aiello","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"307","article-title":"The Harderian gland of the domestic fowl. I. Histology, with reference to the genesis of plasma cells and Russell bodies","volume":"110","author":"Burns","year":"1971","journal-title":"J. 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