{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,16]],"date-time":"2026-08-16T07:04:17Z","timestamp":1786863857917,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]],"date-time":"2024-02-23T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1708646400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Back pain is common in ridden horses. Back diseases in horses include Impinging Dorsal Spinous Processes, Ventral Spondylosis, Osteoarthritis of Articular Process, Intervertebral Discs Disease, Vertebral Fractures, Conformational Abnormalities, Desmopathy of the Supraspinous Ligament, Desmopathy of the Intraspinous Ligament, and Longissimus Muscle Strain. Back pain may also develop as a result of lameness (particularly hindlimb lameness). A poorly fitting saddle and an unbalanced rider are also considered important factors influencing the development of back pain in horses. The conventional diagnosis of equine back pain includes a clinical examination and diagnostic imaging examination using ultrasound, radiography, and thermography. Advanced diagnostic modalities of equine back pain involve the objectification of standard procedures through the use of algometers, a lameness locator, biometric mats, and the geometric morphometrics method. In addition to modern diagnostic methods, such as computed tomography and scintigraphy, advances in the diagnosis of equine back pain include the use of electromyography and functional electrical stimulation. The aim of this review article is to familiarize clinicians with the usefulness and capabilities of conventional diagnostic protocols and advanced diagnostic modalities. Although orthopedic examination and traditional diagnostic methods will remain the foundation of the diagnosis of back diseases, modern methods meet the growing expectations towards high-performance horses and allow for deeper diagnostics and objective monitoring of rehabilitation and training progress.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14050698","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]],"date-time":"2024-02-23T06:07:39Z","timestamp":1708668459000},"page":"698","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Advances in the Clinical Diagnostics to Equine Back Pain: A Review of Imaging and Functional Modalities"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Natalia","family":"Doma\u0144ska-Kruppa","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ma\u0142gorzata","family":"Wierzbicka","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0918-5916","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"El\u017cbieta","family":"Stefanik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Large Animal Diseases and Clinic, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Loon, J.P.A.M., and Macri, L. (2021). Objective Assessment of Chronic Pain in Horses Using the Horse Chronic Pain Scale (Hcps): A Scale-Construction Study. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11061826"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105539","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2021.105539","article-title":"New Insights into Ridden Horse Behaviour, Horse Welfare and Horse-Related Safety","volume":"246","author":"Luke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"527","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13085","article-title":"The Influence of Rider:Horse Bodyweight Ratio and Rider-Horse-Saddle Fit on Equine Gait and Behaviour: A Pilot Study","volume":"32","author":"Dyson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.12222","article-title":"The Interrelationship of Lameness, Saddle Slip and Back Shape in the General Sports Horse Population","volume":"46","author":"Greve","year":"2014","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"178","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2011.00373.x","article-title":"Close, Impinging and Overriding Spinous Processes in the Thoracolumbar Spine: The Relationship between Radiological and Scintigraphic Findings and Clinical Signs","volume":"44","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e9n\u00e8que, E., Lesimple, C., Morisset, S., and Hausberger, M. (2019). Could Posture Reflect Welfare State? A Study Using Geometric Morphometrics in Riding School Horses. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0211852"},{"key":"ref_7","first-page":"384","article-title":"How to Diagnose and Treat Back Pain in the Horse","volume":"56","author":"Johns","year":"2010","journal-title":"AAEP Proc."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2018.00195","article-title":"Two Multicenter Surveys on Equine Back-Pain 10 Years a Part","volume":"5","author":"Riccio","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(02)00009-3","article-title":"Diagnosing and Treating Pain in the Horse: Where Are We Today?","volume":"18","author":"Taylor","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"2984","article-title":"Nociceptive Pain and Anxiety in Equines: Physiological and Behavioral Alterations","volume":"14","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1136\/inp.h4854","article-title":"Equine Back Disorders 1. Clinical Presentation, Investigation and Diagnosis","volume":"37","author":"Findley","year":"2015","journal-title":"Practice"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.14202\/vetworld.2019.377-381","article-title":"Clinical Investigation of Back Disorders in Horses: A Retrospective Study (2002\u20132017)","volume":"12","author":"Mayaki","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. World"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.2746\/042516408X250184","article-title":"The Effect of Induced Hindlimb Lameness on Thoracolumbar Kinematics during Treadmill Locomotion","volume":"40","author":"Bobbert","year":"2008","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"758","DOI":"10.2746\/0425164044848000","article-title":"Effects of Girth, Saddle and Weight on Movements of the Horse","volume":"36","author":"Back","year":"2004","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.1980.tb03427.x","article-title":"Disorders of the Thoracolumbar Spine of the Horse\u2014A Survey of 443 Cases","volume":"12","author":"Jeffcott","year":"1980","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jfms.2011.05.016","article-title":"Dorsal Spinous Process Impingement Syndrome (\u2018kissing Spine\u2019) in a Cat: Imaging Appearance and Surgical Management","volume":"13","author":"Lindley","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Feline Med. Surg."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.1979.tb01192.x","article-title":"Radiographic Features of the Normal Equine Thoracolumbar Spine","volume":"20","year":"1979","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"Geiger, C. (2012). Radiologische Befunderhebung an Der Brustwirbels\u00e4ule Des Pferdes Gem\u00e4\u00df Des R\u00f6ntgenleitfadens 2007 Unter Ber\u00fccksichtigung Der Klinischen Relevanz. [Ph.D. Thesis, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universit\u00e4t M\u00fcnchen]."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105909","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2022.105909","article-title":"The Effect of Manually Facilitated Flexion of the Thoracic Spine on the Interspinous Space among Horses with Impinging Dorsal Spinous Processes of the Thoracic Vertebrae","volume":"289","author":"McGowan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/S1042-3680(18)30292-4","article-title":"Thoracolumbar Spinal Anatomy","volume":"8","author":"Vollmer","year":"1997","journal-title":"Neurosurg. Clin. N. Am."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30161-X","article-title":"Anatomy of the Thoracolumbar Vertebral Region","volume":"15","author":"Haussler","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Dietz, O., and Huskamp, B. (2006). Handbuch Pferdepraxis, Georg Thieme."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"800","DOI":"10.2746\/042516409X436592","article-title":"Radiographic and Scintigraphic Evaluation of Spondylosis in the Equine Thoracolumbar Spine: A Retrospective Study","volume":"41","author":"Meehan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.21836\/PEM19930301","article-title":"R\u00fcckenprobleme Des Athleten \u201ePferd\u201c: 1. Ein Bericht \u00dcber Das Erkennen Und Die M\u00f6glichkeiten Der Diagnose","volume":"9","author":"Jeffcott","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pferdeheilkunde"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scilimati, N., Beccati, F., Pepe, M., Angeli, G., Dall\u2019Aglio, C., and Di Meo, A. (2023). Post-Mortem Ultrasonographic and Computed Tomographic Features of the Anatomical Variations and Acquired Pathological Bony Changes of the Lumbosacroiliac Region in a Mixed Population of Horses. Equine Vet. J., 1\u201312.","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.14033"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.2746\/042516408X345099","article-title":"Osteoarthritis of the Thoracolumbar Synovial Intervertebral Articulations: Clinical and Radiographic Features in 77 Horses with Poor Performance and Back Pain","volume":"41","author":"Girodroux","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Stashak, T. (2002). Adams\u2019 Lameness in Horses, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"442","DOI":"10.1177\/0300985817747950","article-title":"Intervertebral Disc Degeneration in Warmblood Horses: Morphology, Grading, and Distribution of Lesions","volume":"55","author":"Bergmann","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13620","article-title":"Imaging of Equine Septic Discospondylitis Using MRI, CT and Post-Mortem Radiographs","volume":"35","author":"Geller","year":"2023","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.1986.tb03559.x","article-title":"Relationship between Spinal Biomechanics and Pathological Changes in the Equine Thoracolumbar Spine","volume":"18","author":"Townsend","year":"1986","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13125","article-title":"Intervertebral Disc Disease of the Cervical and Cranial Thoracic Vertebrae in Equidae: Eight Cases","volume":"32","author":"Dyson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.1994.tb04395.x","article-title":"Causes of Death in Racehorses over a 2 Year Period","volume":"26","author":"Johnson","year":"1994","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3292.2012.00388.x","article-title":"Fractures of the Withers in Horses","volume":"24","author":"Piat","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nixon, A.J. (2019). Equine Fracture Repair, John Wiley & Sons, Inc.","DOI":"10.1002\/9781119108757"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2006.00140.x","article-title":"Congenital Scoliosis in a Quarter Horse Filly","volume":"47","author":"Wong","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2000.tb00425.x","article-title":"Radiographic Diagnosis: Thoracic Spinal Fracture Resulting in Kyphosis in a Horse","volume":"41","author":"Kothstein","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Wissdorf, H., Gerhards, H., Huskamp, B., and Deegen, E. (2002). Praxisorientierte Anatomie und Prop\u00e4deutik des Pferdes, Schl\u00fctersche."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/ahe.12261","article-title":"Structure and Innervation of the Equine Supraspinous and Interspinous Ligaments","volume":"46","author":"Ehrle","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Ser. C Anat. Histol. Embryol."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30166-9","article-title":"Spinal Ligament Pathology","volume":"15","author":"Gillis","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"Denoix, J.M. (1996, January 27\u201330). Ligament Injuries of the Axial Skeleton in the Horse: Supraspinal and Sacroiliac Desmopathies. Proceedings of the First Dubai International Equine Symposium, Dubai, United Arab Emirates."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, J.M. (2015). Training for Equestrian Performance, Wageningen Academic.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-258-0"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1016\/0020-7489(94)90076-0","article-title":"Epidemiology of Low Back Pain in Chinese Nurses","volume":"31","author":"Chiou","year":"1994","journal-title":"Int. J. Nurs. Stud."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.2746\/042516402776767259","article-title":"Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy in the M. Longissimus Lumborum of Showjumpers and Dressage Horses with Back Pain","volume":"34","author":"Novales","year":"2002","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"398","DOI":"10.1111\/joa.12564","article-title":"Structural and Functional Characteristics of the Thoracolumbar Multifidus Muscle in Horses","volume":"230","author":"Graziotti","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anat."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Story, M.R., Haussler, K.K., Nout-Lomas, Y.S., Aboellail, T.A., Kawcak, C.E., Barrett, M.F., Frisbie, D.D., and Wayne Mcilwraith, C. (2021). Equine Cervical Pain and Dysfunction: Pathology, Diagnosis and Treatment. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020422"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"522","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2010.00322.x","article-title":"Dynamic Mobilisation Exercises Increase Cross Sectional Area of Musculus Multifidus","volume":"43","author":"Stubbs","year":"2011","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"654","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2010.00258.x","article-title":"Osseous Spinal Pathology and Epaxial Muscle Ultrasonography in Thoroughbred Racehorses","volume":"42","author":"Stubbs","year":"2010","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gamucci, F., Pallante, M., Molle, S., Merlo, E., and Bertuglia, A. (2022). A Preliminary Study on the Use of HD-SEMG for the Functional Imaging of Equine Superficial Muscle Activation during Dynamic Mobilization Exercises. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12060785"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Denoix, J.-M. (2014). Biomechanics and Physical Training of the Horse, CRC Press.","DOI":"10.1201\/b16104"},{"key":"ref_50","unstructured":"Haussler, K.K., and Holmes Equine, G. (2007). Review of the Examination and Treatment of Back and Pelvic Disorders, AAEP."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"533","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12436","article-title":"Saddle Fitting, Recognising an Ill-Fitting Saddle and the Consequences of an Ill-Fitting Saddle to Horse and Rider","volume":"27","author":"Dyson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2009.10.036","article-title":"Vertical Forces on the Horse\u2019s Back in Sitting and Rising Trot","volume":"43","author":"Clayton","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Biomech."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.3200\/JMBR.37.6.418-424","article-title":"Coordination Dynamics of the Horse-Rider System","volume":"37","author":"Lagarde","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mot. Behav."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"56","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2009.04.007","article-title":"A Comparison of Forces Acting on the Horse\u2019s Back and the Stability of the Rider\u2019s Seat in Different Positions at the Trot","volume":"184","author":"Peham","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3920\/CEP13025","article-title":"Influence of Velocity on Horse and Rider Movement and Resulting Saddle Forces at Walk and Trot","volume":"10","author":"Bogisch","year":"2014","journal-title":"Comp. Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2017.02.019","article-title":"Rider Impacts on Equitation","volume":"190","author":"Williams","year":"2017","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Williams, J.M., and Evans, D. (2015). Training for Equestrian Performance, Wageningen Press.","DOI":"10.3920\/978-90-8686-258-0"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.21836\/PEM19930404","article-title":"R\u00fcckenprobleme Beim Athleten Pferd 2. M\u00f6gliche Differentialdiagnosen Und Therapiemethoden","volume":"9","author":"Jeffcott","year":"1993","journal-title":"Pferdeheilkunde"},{"key":"ref_59","unstructured":"Munroe, G. (2018). Equine Neck and Back Pathology: Diagnosis and Treatment, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haussler, K.K., and Jeffcott, L.B. (2014). Back and Pelvis, WB Saunders.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-7020-4771-8.00021-1"},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2006.09.007","article-title":"Thermography and Ultrasonography in Back Pain Diagnosis of Equine Athletes","volume":"26","author":"Fonseca","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"235","article-title":"The Treatment of the \u201cKissing Spines\u201d-Syndrome in the Horse\u2014Part 1: Review about the Conservative Management","volume":"38","author":"Baudisch","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pferdeheilkunde"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30164-5","article-title":"Neuroanatomy and Neurological Examination","volume":"15","author":"Blythe","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_64","unstructured":"Lamas, L.P., and Head, M.J. (2009). Equine Back Pathology: Diagnosis and Treatment, John Wiley & Sons."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henson, F.M.D., Lamas, L., Knezevic, S., and Jeffcott, L.B. (2007). Ultrasonographic Evaluation of the Supraspinous Ligament in a Series of Ridden and Unridden Horses and Horses with Unrelated Back Pathology. BMC Vet. Res., 3.","DOI":"10.1186\/1746-6148-3-3"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30169-4","article-title":"Ultrasonographic Evaluation of Back Lesions","volume":"15","author":"Denoix","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"592","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13551","article-title":"Ultrasonographic Diagnosis of Equine Thoracolumbar Articular Process Joint Lesions","volume":"34","author":"Beaumont","year":"2021","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2006.tb05575.x","article-title":"Functional Anatomy of the Caudal Thoracolumbar and Lumbosacral Spine in the Horse","volume":"38","author":"Stubbs","year":"2006","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_69","first-page":"41","article-title":"Equine Back Disorders: A Comparative Study between Palpation and Radiographic Findings","volume":"2","author":"Henklewski","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl. Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1964.tb13700.x","article-title":"Applications of Thermography in Veterinary Medicine","volume":"121","author":"Smith","year":"1964","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2016.11.002","article-title":"Infrared Thermography: Current Applications in Equine Medicine","volume":"60","author":"Soroko","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soroko, M., Zaborski, D., Dudek, K., Yarnell, K., G\u00f3rniak, W., and Vardasca, R. (2019). Evaluation of Thermal Pattern Distributions in Racehorse Saddles Using Infrared Thermography. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0221622"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2018.01.006","article-title":"Assessment of Saddle Fit in Racehorses Using Infrared Thermography","volume":"63","author":"Soroko","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u015bko, M., Gajewski, Z., Zdrojkowski, L., Domino, M., and Jasinski, T. (2019). The Pattern of Superficial Body Temperatures in Leisure Horses Lunged with Commonly Used Lunging Aids. Animals, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani9121095"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1315","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.13994","article-title":"Thermal Features, Ambient Temperature and Hair Coat Lengths: Limitations of Infrared Imaging in Pregnant Primitive Breed Mares within a Year","volume":"56","author":"Domino","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domino, M., Borowska, M., Trojakowska, A., Koz\u0142owska, N., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., Jasi\u0144ski, T., Smyth, G., and Ma\u015bko, M. (2022). The Effect of Rider:Horse Bodyweight Ratio on the Superficial Body Temperature of Horse\u2019s Thoracolumbar Region Evaluated by Advanced Thermal Image Processing. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12020195"},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domino, M., Borowska, M., Koz\u0142owska, N., Trojakowska, A., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., Jasi\u0144ski, T., Smyth, G., and Ma\u015bko, M. (2022). Selection of Image Texture Analysis and Color Model in the Advanced Image Processing of Thermal Images of Horses Following Exercise. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12040444"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domino, M., Borowska, M., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., Jasi\u0144ski, T., Sikorska, U., Skibniewski, M., and Ma\u015bko, M. (2022). Application of the Two-Dimensional Entropy Measures in the Infrared Thermography-Based Detection of Rider: Horse Bodyweight Ratio in Horseback Riding. Sensors, 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/s22166052"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u015bko, M., Borowska, M., Sikorska, U., Ciesielska, A., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., and Domino, M. (2023). Quantification of the Area of the Highest Temperature in Equine Infrared Images. Appl. Sci., 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/app131911006"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ma\u015bko, M., Sikorska, U., Borowska, M., Zdrojkowski, \u0141., Jasi\u0144ski, T., and Domino, M. (2023). The Postural and Body Surface Temperature Response of Leisure Horses to Lunging with Selected Lunging Aids. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14010022"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Domino, M., Romaszewski, M., Jasi\u0144ski, T., and Ma\u015bko, M. (2020). Comparison of the Surface Thermal Patterns of Horses and Donkeys in Infrared Thermography Images. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10122201"},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Masko, M., Borowska, M., Domino, M., Jasinski, T., Zdrojkowski, L., and Gajewski, Z. (2021). A Novel Approach to Thermographic Images Analysis of Equine Thoracolumbar Region: The Effect of Effort and Rider\u2019s Body Weight on Structural Image Complexity. BMC Vet. Res., 17.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-021-02803-2"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kim, S.M., and Cho, G.J. (2021). Validation of Eye Temperature Assessed Using Infrared Thermography as an Indicator of Welfare in Horses. Appl. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/app11167186"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1111\/vru.12695","article-title":"Thoracic Processi Spinosi Findings Agree among Subjective, Semiquantitative, and Modified Semiquantitative Scintigraphic Image Evaluation Methods and Partially Agree with Clinical Findings in Horses with and without Thoracolumbar Pain","volume":"60","author":"Ehrle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"661","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2011.01845.x","article-title":"Comparison of Radiographic and Scintigraphic Findings of the Spinous Processes in the Equine Thoracolumbar Region","volume":"52","author":"Zimmerman","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_86","unstructured":"Turner, T.A., and Acvs, D. (2011, January 18\u201322). Overriding Spinous Processes (\u201cKissing Spines\u201d) in Horses: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Outcome in 212 Cases. Proceedings of the 57th Annual Convention of the American Association of Equine Practitioners, San Antonio, TX, USA."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morgan, R.E., Fiske-Jackson, A., and Chang, Y.M. (2023). Comparison of Ultrasonographic and Computed Tomographic Imaging of Equine Thoracolumbar Articular Process Joints. Equine Vet. J., 1\u201310.","DOI":"10.1111\/evj.14017"},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"518","DOI":"10.2746\/042516409X391015","article-title":"Radiographic Retrospective Study of the Caudal Cervical Articular Process Joints in the Horse","volume":"41","author":"Down","year":"2009","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2006.00123.x","article-title":"Imaging Features of Discospondylitis in Two Horses","volume":"47","author":"Sweers","year":"2006","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.2746\/095777307X180268","article-title":"Thoracic Discospondylitis with Associated Epaxial Muscle Atrophy in a Quarter Horse Gelding","volume":"19","author":"Alward","year":"2007","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.13658","article-title":"Diagnostic Imaging of the Equine Cervical Spine\u2014Are Radiographs Enough?","volume":"35","author":"Berner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_92","unstructured":"MacDonald, M.H., Kannegieter, N., Peroni, J.F., and Merfy, W.E. (2006). The Equine Manual, W.B. Saunders."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1080\/16501970310015218","article-title":"Tender or Not Tender: Test-Retest Repeatability of Pressure Pain Thresholds in the Trapezius and Deltoid Muscle of Healthy Women","volume":"36","author":"Persson","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Rehabil. Med."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijosm.2006.11.002","article-title":"Algometer Reliability in Measuring Pain Pressure Threshold over Normal Spinal Muscles to Allow Quantification of Anti-Nociceptive Treatment Effects","volume":"9","author":"Potter","year":"2006","journal-title":"Int. J. Osteopath. Med."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"76","DOI":"10.2746\/042516406775374225","article-title":"Pressure Algometry for the Detection of Induced Back Pain in Horses: A Preliminary Study","volume":"38","author":"Haussler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"652","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2012.00571.x","article-title":"Comparison of an Inertial Sensor System of Lameness Quantification with Subjective Lameness Evaluation","volume":"44","author":"Mccracken","year":"2012","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_97","first-page":"92","article-title":"Equine Lameness: Clinical Judgment Meets Advanced Diagnostic Imaging","volume":"59","author":"Dyson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Proc. Am. Ass. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2015.12.012","article-title":"Subjective Gait Assessment of 57 Sports Horses in Normal Work: A Comparison of the Response to Flexion Tests, Movement in Hand, on the Lunge, and Ridden","volume":"38","author":"Dyson","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12426","article-title":"Evaluation of Poor Performance in Competition Horses: A Musculoskeletal Perspective. Part 1: Clinical Assessment","volume":"28","author":"Dyson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Uldahl, M., Christensen, J.W., and Clayton, H.M. (2021). Relationships between the Rider\u2019s Pelvic Mobility and Balance on a Gymnastic Ball with Equestrian Skills and Effects on Horse Welfare. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11020453"},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Balcer, M., \u015anieg, A., Sikorska, U., Ma\u015bko, M., and Domino, M. (2023). The Initial Horse\u2019s Postural Response to the First Session of the Dorsal, Ventral, and Dorso\u2013Ventral Massage Techniques. Agriculture, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/agriculture13030529"},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"477","DOI":"10.1111\/eve.12623","article-title":"Clinical Progress in the Diagnosis of Thoracolumbar Problems in Horses","volume":"30","author":"Burns","year":"2018","journal-title":"Equine Vet. Educ."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"718","DOI":"10.2746\/0425164044848019","article-title":"The Role of Electromyography in Clinical Diagnosis of Neuromuscular Locomotor Problems in the Horse","volume":"36","author":"Wijnberg","year":"2004","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2007.11.001","article-title":"Electromyographic Activity of the Longissimus Dorsi Muscles in Horses When Walking on a Treadmill","volume":"180","author":"Licka","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.2460\/ajvr.2004.65.155","article-title":"Electromyographic Activity of the Longissimusdorsi Muscles in Horses during Trotting on a Treadmill","volume":"65","author":"Licka","year":"2004","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2021.103772","article-title":"The Effect of Ground Poles and Elastic Resistance Bands on Longissimus Dorsi and Rectus Abdominus Muscle Activity During Equine Walk and Trot","volume":"107","author":"Shaw","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.3920\/CEP12024","article-title":"Electromyographic Evaluation of Approach Stride, Jump Stride and Intermediate Stride in Selected Superficial Muscles of the Jumping Horse: A Preliminary Study","volume":"9","author":"George","year":"2013","journal-title":"Comp. Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2042-3306.2001.tb05382.x","article-title":"Evaluation of the EMG Activity of the Long Back Muscle during Induced Back Movements at Stance","volume":"33","author":"Peham","year":"2001","journal-title":"Equine Vet. J. Suppl."},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"844776","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.844776","article-title":"Electromyography of the Multifidus Muscle in Horses Trotting During Therapeutic Exercises","volume":"9","author":"Ursini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_110","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"69","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.12.012","article-title":"Histological Examination of the Interspinous Ligament in Horses with Overriding Spinous Processes","volume":"244","author":"Ehrle","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.4081\/bam.2015.2.109","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation as a Safe and Effectivetreatment for Equine Epaxial Muscle Spasms: Clinical Evaluations and Histochemical Morphometry of Mitochondria in Muscle Biopsies","volume":"25","author":"Ravara","year":"2015","journal-title":"Eur. J. Transl. Myol-Basic. Appl. Myol."},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104078","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jevs.2022.104078","article-title":"Functional Electrical Stimulation (FES) in the Diagnosis and Treatment of Musculoskeletal and Neuromuscular Control Abnormalities in Horses\u2014Selected Case Studies","volume":"117","author":"Schils","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Equine Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dietrich, J., Handschuh, S., Steidl, R., B\u00f6hler, A., Forstenpointner, G., Egerbacher, M., Peham, C., and Sch\u00f6pper, H. (2021). Muscle Fibre Architecture of Thoracic and Lumbar Longissimus Dorsi Muscle in the Horse. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11030915"},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1017\/S1478061509342346","article-title":"The Effects of Training Aids on the Longissimus Dorsi in the Equine Back","volume":"5","author":"Cottriall","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Exerc. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pongratz, U., and Licka, T. (2017). Algometry to Measure Pain Threshold in the Horse\u2019s Back\u2014An in Vivo and in Vitro Study. BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-1002-y"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0739(17)30504-7","article-title":"Advances in Motion Analysis","volume":"7","author":"Clayton","year":"1991","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Equine Pract."},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.1007\/s00586-003-0631-y","article-title":"Cervical Myelopathy: Clinical and Neurophysiological Evaluation","volume":"12","author":"Dvorak","year":"2003","journal-title":"Eur. Spine J."},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2311","DOI":"10.1007\/s40279-021-01487-w","article-title":"Muscle Activity and Activation in Previously Strain-Injured Lower Limbs: A Systematic Review","volume":"51","author":"Presland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sports Med."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/5\/698\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:03:47Z","timestamp":1760105027000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/5\/698"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ani14050698"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani14050698","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,23]]}}}