{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,16]],"date-time":"2026-10-16T12:34:25Z","timestamp":1792154065413,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]],"date-time":"2024-04-17T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1713312000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) is an androgen-related non-neoplastic enlargement of the prostate gland that commonly affects both reproductive capabilities and the general health of intact dogs. The subclinical form of BPH can be challenging to diagnose due to a lack of clinical signs, even if rectal palpation is performed. Left untreated, this condition poses risks to the dogs\u2019 health and breeding status. This study, involving 65 male dogs, aimed to investigate subclinical BPH through rectal palpation, ultrasonography, and analysis of canine prostatic-specific esterase (CPSE). Of the participants, 35 had subclinical BPH, and 30 served as a healthy control group. Dogs suspected of subclinical BPH, as determined by examination results from ultrasonography and CPSE analysis, underwent fine needle aspiration (FNA) guided by ultrasound to enhance diagnostic precision. Findings revealed distinct differences in rectal palpation and ultrasonography between subclinical BPH and healthy dogs. This study established diagnostic thresholds based on prostatic volume and CPSE values and proposed new thresholds for subclinical BPH. Additionally, results showed that prostate gland volume depended on the weight and the age of the dog. In conclusion, early detection of this condition is possible through various examinations, such as changes in ultrasound features, CPSE levels, and rectal palpation. All together, these methods can aid practitioners in early detection of BPH and assist with scheduling screening programs for dogs, ultimately promoting their overall health and reproductive well-being. In conclusion, we advocate for routine, non-invasive prostate screenings in breeding males, underlining the effectiveness of a combination of various multiple techniques for early subclinical BPH detection.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14081204","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]],"date-time":"2024-04-17T10:52:37Z","timestamp":1713351157000},"page":"1204","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Comparative Evaluation of Diagnostic Methods for Subclinical Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Intact Breeding Male Dogs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"given":"Tomas","family":"Laurusevi\u010dius","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Kaunas Veterinary Practice, Veiveriu Str. 176a-2, 46415 Kaunas, Lithuania"},{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"J\u016brat\u0117","family":"\u0160iug\u017edait\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nomeda","family":"Juod\u017eiukynien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sigita","family":"Kerzien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8333-3086","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lina","family":"Anskien\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vaiva","family":"Jackut\u0117","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Darius","family":"Trumbeckas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Urology, Urology Clinic, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Eiveniu Str. 2, 50161 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5010-6311","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ann","family":"Van Soom","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Reproduction and Population Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2082-4539","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Florin Petrisor","family":"Posastiuc","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Internal Medicine, Reproduction and Population Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"},{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 105 Blvd. Splaiul Independentei, 050097 Bucharest, Romania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Henrikas","family":"\u017dilinskas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Academy, Lithuanian University of Health Sciences, Til\u017ees Str. 18, 47181 Kaunas, Lithuania"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12587","article-title":"Computed Tomography of the Prostate Gland in Healthy Intact Dogs and Dogs with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia","volume":"50","author":"Pasikowska","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1031292","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.1031292","article-title":"Assessment of the Utility of Platelet Indices to Diagnose Clinical Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Dogs","volume":"9","author":"Hosseinpour","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2007.04.025","article-title":"Common Causes of Male Dog Infertility","volume":"68","author":"Memon","year":"2007","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2018.125601","article-title":"The Effects of Osaterone Acetate on Clinical Signs and Prostate Volume in Dogs with Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia","volume":"21","author":"Socha","year":"2018","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2008.04.039","article-title":"Canine Prostatic Disease: A Review of Anatomy, Pathology, Diagnosis, and Treatment","volume":"70","author":"Smith","year":"2008","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1002\/pros.2990090406","article-title":"Development of Canine Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia with Age","volume":"9","author":"Berry","year":"1986","journal-title":"Prostate"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12296","article-title":"Pharmacological Treatment for Common Prostatic Conditions in Dogs\u2014Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia and Prostatitis: An Update","volume":"49","author":"Levy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"530","DOI":"10.1111\/vru.13087","article-title":"CT Imaging of Dogs with Perineal Hernia Reveals Large Prostates with Morphological and Spatial Abnormalities","volume":"63","author":"Salonen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"998","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.13009","article-title":"Serum Testosterone, Sperm Quality, Cytological, Physicochemical and Biochemical Characteristics of the Prostatic Fraction of Dogs with Prostatomegaly","volume":"52","author":"Pinheiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"490","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2020.03.009","article-title":"Imaging of the Male Reproductive Tract: Not so Easy as It Looks Like","volume":"150","author":"Mantziaras","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12296","article-title":"Diagnosis of Common Prostatic Conditions in Dogs: An Update","volume":"49","author":"Mimouni","year":"2014","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1259","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.13224","article-title":"CPSE Determination and Detection of Canine Prostatic Diseases: The Importance of a Specific Diagnosis","volume":"53","year":"2018","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"146","DOI":"10.3138\/jvme.1214-120R1","article-title":"Canine Prostate Palpation Simulator as a Teaching Tool in Veterinary Education","volume":"42","author":"Campos","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. Educ."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anireprosci.2022.107096","article-title":"Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in the Dog","volume":"247","author":"Cunto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.4102\/jsava.v78i2.292","article-title":"Canine Subclinical Prostatic Disease: Histological Prevalence and Validity of Digital Rectal Examination as a Screening Test","volume":"78","author":"Mukaratirwa","year":"2007","journal-title":"J. S. Afr. Vet. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1016\/S0378-4320(00)00101-9","article-title":"Prostatic Disorders in the Dog","volume":"60\u201361","author":"Johnston","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anim. Reprod. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"677","DOI":"10.5433\/1679-0359.2019v40n2p677","article-title":"Digital Radiography and Ultrasonography in Evaluation of the Canine Prostate","volume":"40","author":"Moresco","year":"2019","journal-title":"Semin. Cienc. Agrar."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.1998.tb00342.x","article-title":"Ultrasonographic Evaluation of the Prostate in Healthy Intact Dogs","volume":"39","author":"Ruel","year":"1998","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1136\/inp.i6054","article-title":"Ultrasonography of the Prostate Gland and Testes in Dogs","volume":"39","author":"Moxon","year":"2017","journal-title":"In Practice"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tcam.2020.100501","article-title":"Echotexture Analysis of Prostate Parenchyma for Detection of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Dogs","volume":"42","author":"Khanbazi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Top. Companion Anim. Med."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"768","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12159","article-title":"Power and Pulsed Doppler Evaluation of Prostatic Artery Blood Flow in Normal and Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia-Affected Dogs","volume":"48","author":"Zelli","year":"2013","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"701","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cvsm.2018.02.012","article-title":"Canine Prostate Disease","volume":"48","author":"Christensen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2022.12.047","article-title":"Age, Weight and Circulating Concentrations of Total Testosterone Are Associated with the Relative Prostatic Size in Adult Intact Male Dogs","volume":"198","author":"Holst","year":"2023","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1053\/j.tcam.2018.09.002","article-title":"Advances in Prostatic Diagnostics in Dogs: The Role of Canine Prostatic Specific Esterase in the Early Diagnosis of Prostatic Disorders","volume":"33","author":"Alonge","year":"2018","journal-title":"Top. Companion Anim. Med."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-165X.2004.tb00365.x","article-title":"Evaluation of the Cytologic Diagnosis of Canine Prostatic Disorders","volume":"33","author":"Powe","year":"2004","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinheiro, D., Machado, J., Viegas, C., Baptista, C., Bastos, E., Magalh\u00e3es, J., Pires, M.A., Cardoso, L., and Martins-Bessa, A. (2017). Evaluation of Biomarker Canine-Prostate Specific Arginine Esterase (CPSE) for the Diagnosis of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia. BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-0996-5"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2006.05.003","article-title":"Collection of Tissue and Culture Samples from the Canine Reproductive Tract","volume":"66","author":"Kustritz","year":"2006","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"881232","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.881232","article-title":"A Review on Canine and Feline Prostate Pathology","volume":"9","author":"Palmieri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2017.06.010","article-title":"Assessment of the Age for a Preventive Ultrasonographic Examination of the Prostate in the Dog","volume":"100","author":"Mantziaras","year":"2017","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"238","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12059","article-title":"B-Mode and Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasonographic Findings in Canine Prostatic Disorders","volume":"47","author":"Russo","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"219","DOI":"10.15547\/bjvm.2281","article-title":"Computer-Assisted Sperm Analysis and Comparative Diagnostic Imaging of Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia in Dogs by Ultrasound, x-Ray and Computed Tomography","volume":"24","author":"Genov","year":"2021","journal-title":"Bulg. J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1053\/rvsc.1998.0267","article-title":"Ultrasonographic Estimation of Prostatic Size in Canine Cadavers","volume":"67","author":"Atalan","year":"1999","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","first-page":"1325","article-title":"Relationship of Seminal Volume to Size and Disease of the Prostate in the Beagle","volume":"40","author":"Wheaton","year":"1979","journal-title":"Am. J. Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1740-8261.2000.tb00430.x","article-title":"Determination of Canine Prostatic Volume Using Trans Abdominal Ultrasonography","volume":"41","author":"Kamolpatana","year":"2000","journal-title":"Vet. Radiol. Ultrasound"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1016\/j.theriogenology.2019.10.040","article-title":"Treatment of Experimentally Induced Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia with Tadalafil and Castration in Dogs","volume":"142","author":"Dearakhshandeh","year":"2020","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.17555\/ksvc.2014.06.31.3.175","article-title":"Volumetric Estimation of the Prostate Gland Using Computed Tomography in Normal Beagle Dogs","volume":"31","author":"Choi","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Clin."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1439-0531.2001.00288.x","article-title":"Colour-Coded and Pulsed Doppler Sonography of the Canine Testis, Epididymis and Prostate Gland: Physiological and Pathological Findings","volume":"36","author":"Mohrke","year":"2001","journal-title":"Reprod. Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ni\u017ca\u0144ski, W., Ochota, M., Fontaine, C., and Pasikowska, J. (2020). B-Mode and Doppler Ultrasonographic Findings of Prostate Gland and Testes in Dogs Receiving Deslorelin Acetate or Osaterone Acetate. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10122379"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"149","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1939-1676.1995.tb03288.x","article-title":"Evaluation of Serum and Seminal Plasma Markers in the Diagnosis of Canine Prostatic Disorders","volume":"9","author":"Bell","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"538","DOI":"10.21037\/tau.2017.03.61","article-title":"Canine Prostate Models in Preclinical Studies of Minimally Invasive Interventions: Part I, Canine Prostate Anatomy and Prostate Cancer Models","volume":"6","author":"Sun","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transl. Androl. Urol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1016\/S0093-691X(02)00628-3","article-title":"Serum and Seminal Markers in the Diagnosis of Disorders of the Genital Tract of the Dog: A Mini-Review","volume":"57","author":"Gobello","year":"2002","journal-title":"Theriogenology"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1111\/rda.12083","article-title":"Testicular Steroids, Prolactin, Relaxin and Prostate Gland Markers in Peripheral Blood and Seminal Plasma of Normal Dogs and Dogs with Prostatic Hyperplasia","volume":"47","author":"Wolf","year":"2012","journal-title":"Reprod Domest. Anim."},{"key":"ref_43","first-page":"176","article-title":"Comparative Assessment of Immunochromatography and ELISA Diagnostic Tests for HBsAg Detection in PCR-Confirmed HBV Infection","volume":"87","author":"Navvabi","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Gastroenterol. M\u00e9xico Engl. Ed."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/8\/1204\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:29:29Z","timestamp":1760106569000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/8\/1204"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"8","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,4]]}},"alternative-id":["ani14081204"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani14081204","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,4,17]]}}}