{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:19:07Z","timestamp":1768263547905,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":99,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]],"date-time":"2024-06-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1718236800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001824","name":"Czech Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["21-15621S"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["21-15621S"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001824","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Probiotics are a potential strategy for salmonellosis control. A defined pig microbiota (DPM) mixture of nine bacterial strains previously exhibited probiotic and anti-Salmonella properties in vitro. Therefore, we evaluated its gut colonization ability and protection effect against S.\u00a0typhimurium LT2-induced infection in the gnotobiotic piglet model. The DPM mixture successfully colonized the piglet gut and was stable and safe until the end of the experiment. The colon was inhabited by about 9 log CFU g\u22121 with a significant representation of bifidobacteria and lactobacilli compared to ileal levels around 7\u20138 log CFU g\u22121. Spore-forming clostridia and bacilli seemed to inhabit the environment only temporarily. The bacterial consortium contributed to the colonization of the gut at an entire length. The amplicon profile analysis supported the cultivation trend with a considerable representation of lactobacilli with bacilli in the ileum and bifidobacteria with clostridia in the colon. Although there was no significant Salmonella-positive elimination, it seems that the administered bacteria conferred the protection of infected piglets because of the slowed delayed infection manifestation without translocations of Salmonella cells to the blood circulation. Due to its colonization stability and potential protective anti-Salmonella traits, the DPM mixture has promising potential in pig production applications. However, advanced immunological tests are needed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14121779","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]],"date-time":"2024-06-13T06:23:11Z","timestamp":1718259791000},"page":"1779","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Defined Pig Microbiota Mixture as Promising Strategy against Salmonellosis in Gnotobiotic Piglets"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"14","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4390-1277","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nikol","family":"Modrackova","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kristyna","family":"Horvathova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5793-3501","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Chahrazed","family":"Mekadim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3665-1377","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Igor","family":"Splichal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Doly 183, 549 22 Novy Hradek, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7428-7687","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alla","family":"Splichalova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Gnotobiology, Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Doly 183, 549 22 Novy Hradek, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0000-3360-0326","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ahmad","family":"Amin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1907-3333","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jakub","family":"Mrazek","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Animal Physiology and Genetics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3219-2003","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Eva","family":"Vlkova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7596-4360","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Vera","family":"Neuzil-Bunesova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Microbiology, Nutrition and Dietetics, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamycka 129, 165 00 Prague, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8787","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v21.i29.8787","article-title":"Role of the normal gut microbiota","volume":"21","author":"Jandhyala","year":"2015","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1955","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1109051","article-title":"Glycan foraging in vivo by an intestine-adapted bacterial symbiont","volume":"307","author":"Sonnenburg","year":"2005","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1007\/s00248-022-02081-x","article-title":"Human gut microbiota and drug metabolism","volume":"86","author":"Pant","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"539","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aad9378","article-title":"How colonization by microbiota in early life shapes the immune system","volume":"352","author":"Gensollen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"627","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2022.04.009","article-title":"The developing infant gut microbiome: A strain-level view","volume":"30","author":"Enav","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1038\/nature25973","article-title":"Environment dominates over host genetics in shaping human gut microbiota","volume":"555","author":"Rothschild","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12918","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-49452-y","article-title":"Defining dysbiosis for a cluster of chronic diseases","volume":"9","author":"Wilkins","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"823","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2006.02.016","article-title":"Innate immunity gone awry: Linking microbial infections to chronic inflammation and cancer","volume":"124","author":"Karin","year":"2006","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1038\/mi.2016.75","article-title":"Mechanisms of inflammation-driven bacterial dysbiosis in the gut","volume":"10","author":"Zeng","year":"2017","journal-title":"Mucosal Immunol."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e244","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0050244","article-title":"Salmonella enterica serovar typhimurium exploits inflammation to compete with the intestinal microbiota","volume":"5","author":"Stecher","year":"2007","journal-title":"PLoS Biol."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chom.2007.06.010","article-title":"Host-mediated inflammation disrupts the intestinal microbiota and promotes the overgrowth of Enterobacteriaceae","volume":"2","author":"Lupp","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cell Host Microbe"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baldelli, V., Scaldaferri, F., Putignani, L., and Del Chierico, F. (2021). The role of Enterobacteriaceae in gut microbiota dysbiosis in inflammatory bowel diseases. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9040697"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1111\/risa.12514","article-title":"Modeling of Salmonella contamination in the pig slaughterhouse","volume":"36","author":"Swart","year":"2016","journal-title":"Risk Anal."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e12916","DOI":"10.1111\/jfs.12916","article-title":"Description of control programmes for Salmonella in pigs in Europe. Progress to date?","volume":"41","author":"Leonard","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Food Saf."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e130","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268823001115","article-title":"Assessing pig farm biosecurity measures for the control of Salmonella on European farms","volume":"151","author":"Smith","year":"2023","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhunia, A.K. (2018). Foodborne Microbial Pathogens: Mechanisms and Pathogenesis, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4939-7349-1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Campos, J., Mour\u00e3o, J., Peixe, L., and Antunes, P. (2019). Non-typhoidal Salmonella in the pig production chain: A comprehensive analysis of its impact on human health. Pathogens, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens8010019"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1186\/s13567-019-0666-7","article-title":"Weaned piglets: Another factor to be considered for the control of Salmonella infection in breeding pig farms","volume":"50","author":"Alvarez","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"851","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tim.2017.05.004","article-title":"Gut microbiota dysbiosis in postweaning piglets: Understanding the keys to health","volume":"25","author":"Gresse","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"65","article-title":"Social stress increases fecal shedding of Salmonella typhimurium by early weaned piglets","volume":"7","author":"Callaway","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. Issues Intest. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109431","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2022.109431","article-title":"Beneficial effects of probiotics on the pig production cycle: An overview of clinical impacts and performance","volume":"269","author":"Pereira","year":"2022","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-022-00295-6","article-title":"Mechanisms and applications of probiotics in prevention and treatment of swine diseases","volume":"9","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.aambs.2016.12.001","article-title":"Antivirulence properties of probiotics in combating microbial pathogenesis","volume":"98","author":"Nair","year":"2017","journal-title":"Adv. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"506","DOI":"10.1038\/nrgastro.2014.66","article-title":"Expert consensus document: The International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics consensus statement on the scope and appropriate use of the term probiotic","volume":"11","author":"Hill","year":"2014","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.3390\/encyclopedia3020040","article-title":"Probiotics as Antibiotic Alternatives for Human and Animal Applications","volume":"3","author":"Rabetafika","year":"2023","journal-title":"Encyclopedia"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"84","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2019.02.017","article-title":"Practical aspects of the use of probiotics in pig production: A review","volume":"223","author":"Castillejos","year":"2019","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100058","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vas.2019.100058","article-title":"Patterns of antibiotic use in global pig production: A systematic review","volume":"7","author":"Lekagul","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2014.05.017","article-title":"Impact of antibiotic use in the swine industry","volume":"19","author":"Barton","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00136","article-title":"Antibiotic application and resistance in swine production in China: Current situation and future perspectives","volume":"6","author":"Yang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Front. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2017.06.007","article-title":"Using probiotics to improve swine gut health and nutrient utilization","volume":"3","author":"Liao","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lambo, M.T., Chang, X., and Liu, D. (2021). The recent trend in the use of multistrain probiotics in livestock production: An overview. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11102805"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"554","DOI":"10.1111\/jam.13364","article-title":"Probiotic roles of Lactobacillus sp. in swine: Insights from gut microbiota","volume":"122","author":"Valeriano","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1570","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.01570","article-title":"The probiotic combination of Bifidobacterium longum subsp. infantis CECT 7210 and Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BPL6 reduces pathogen loads and improves gut health of weaned piglets orally challenged with Salmonella typhimurium","volume":"8","author":"Castillejos","year":"2017","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1002\/vms3.215","article-title":"Enterococcus faecium supplementation in sows during gestation and lactation improves the performance of sucking piglets","volume":"6","author":"Lan","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Sci."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"801827","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.801827","article-title":"Bacillus spp. probiotic strains as a potential tool for limiting the use of antibiotics, and improving the growth and health of pigs and chickens","volume":"13","author":"Luise","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2926","DOI":"10.1039\/C8FO02370K","article-title":"Positive effects of a Clostridium butyricum-based compound probiotic on growth performance, immune responses, intestinal morphology, hypothalamic neurotransmitters, and colonic microbiota in weaned piglets","volume":"10","author":"Cao","year":"2019","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.3920\/BM2018.0023","article-title":"Beneficial effects of Saccharomyces cerevisiae RC016 in weaned piglets: In vivo and ex vivo analysis","volume":"10","author":"Dogi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Benef. Microbes"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1007\/s10620-020-06244-z","article-title":"Efficacy of single-strain probiotics versus multi-strain mixtures: Systematic review of strain and disease specificity","volume":"66","author":"McFarland","year":"2021","journal-title":"Dig. Dis. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"83","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2017.08.005","article-title":"Correlation between in vitro and in vivo assays in selection of probiotics from traditional species of bacteria","volume":"68","author":"Vinderola","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2015.00058","article-title":"Discovering probiotic microorganisms: In vitro, in vivo, genetic and omics approaches","volume":"6","author":"Papadimitriou","year":"2015","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horvathova, K., Modrackova, N., Splichal, I., Splichalova, A., Amin, A., Ingribelli, E., Killer, J., Doskocil, I., Pechar, R., and Kodesova, T. (2023). Defined Pig Microbiota with a Potential Protective Effect against Infection with Salmonella typhimurium. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11041007"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2018.00220","article-title":"Preterm life in sterile conditions: A study on preterm, germ-free piglets","volume":"9","author":"Splichalova","year":"2018","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"381","DOI":"10.1111\/cei.13236","article-title":"Colonization of preterm gnotobiotic piglets with probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG and its interference with Salmonella typhimurium","volume":"195","author":"Splichalova","year":"2019","journal-title":"Clin. Exp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5244","DOI":"10.1128\/iai.65.12.5244-5249.1997","article-title":"Cellular changes and cytokine expression in the ilea of gnotobiotic piglets resulting from peroral Salmonella typhimurium challenge","volume":"65","author":"Dlabac","year":"1997","journal-title":"Infect. Immun."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Splichal, I., Donovan, S.M., Splichalova, Z., Neuzil Bunesova, V., Vlkova, E., Jenistova, V., Killer, J., Svejstil, R., Skrivanova, E., and Splichalova, A. (2019). Colonization of germ-free piglets with commensal Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lactobacillus mucosae, and probiotic E. coli Nissle 1917 and their interference with Salmonella typhimurium. Microorganisms, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms7080273"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-94824-y","article-title":"The bifidobacterial distribution in the microbiome of captive primates reflects parvorder and feed specialization of the host","volume":"11","author":"Modrackova","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"123","article-title":"The roll-tube method for cultivation of strict anaerobes","volume":"17","author":"Hungate","year":"1973","journal-title":"Bull. Ecol. Res. Comm."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0167-7012(00)00205-0","article-title":"A new selective medium for the isolation of glucose non-fermenting bifidobacteria from hen caeca","volume":"43","author":"Rada","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Microbiol. Methods"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anaerobe.2015.04.001","article-title":"A new medium containing mupirocin, acetic acid, and norfloxacin for the selective cultivation of bifidobacteria","volume":"34","author":"Rada","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4516","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1000080107","article-title":"Global patterns of 16S rRNA diversity at a depth of millions of sequences per sample","volume":"108","author":"Caporaso","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e68739","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0068739","article-title":"Assessing the fecal microbiota: An optimized ion torrent 16S rRNA gene-based analysis protocol","volume":"8","author":"Milani","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-022-02458-5","article-title":"Dysbiosis of skin microbiome and gut microbiome in melanoma progression","volume":"22","author":"Mekadim","year":"2022","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1038\/s41587-019-0209-9","article-title":"Reproducible, interactive, scalable and extensible microbiome data science using QIIME 2","volume":"37","author":"Bolyen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nat. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1038\/nmeth.3869","article-title":"DADA2: High-resolution sample inference from Illumina amplicon data","volume":"13","author":"Callahan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Nat. Methods"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e2584","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.2584","article-title":"VSEARCH: A versatile open source tool for metagenomics","volume":"4","author":"Rognes","year":"2016","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"R60","DOI":"10.1186\/gb-2011-12-6-r60","article-title":"Metagenomic biomarker discovery and explanation","volume":"12","author":"Segata","year":"2011","journal-title":"Genome Biol."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.2527\/af.2016-0031","article-title":"The role of gut microbiota in the health and disease of pigs","volume":"6","author":"Fouhse","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Front."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"185","article-title":"Intestinal short chain fatty acids and their link with diet and human health","volume":"7","author":"Margolles","year":"2016","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mamo, G. (2016). Anaerobes as sources of bioactive compounds and health promoting tools. Anaerobes Biotechnol., 433\u2013464.","DOI":"10.1007\/10_2016_6"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1111\/imr.12567","article-title":"Gut microbiota: Role in pathogen colonization, immune responses, and inflammatory disease","volume":"279","author":"Pickard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Immunol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5091","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-018-07631-x","article-title":"Birth mode is associated with earliest strain-conferred gut microbiome functions and immunostimulatory potential","volume":"9","author":"Wampach","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anaerobe.2017.12.002","article-title":"Co-occurrence of early gut colonization in neonatal piglets with microbiota in the maternal and surrounding delivery environments","volume":"49","author":"Chen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anaerobe"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"52","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mib.2021.05.013","article-title":"Salmonella pathogenesis and host-adaptation in farmed animals","volume":"63","author":"Stevens","year":"2021","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e01569-20","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.01569-20","article-title":"Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium temporally modulates the enteric microbiota and host responses to overcome colonization resistance in swine","volume":"86","author":"Bescucci","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"88","DOI":"10.18683\/germs.2021.1244","article-title":"Salmonella spp. infection-a continuous threat worldwide","volume":"11","author":"Popa","year":"2021","journal-title":"Germs"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"134609","DOI":"10.1016\/j.scitotenv.2019.134609","article-title":"Contamination of pig carcass with Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium monophasic variant 1, 4 [5], 12:i:-originates mainly in live animals","volume":"703","author":"Marin","year":"2020","journal-title":"Sci. Total Environ."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roasto, M., Bonardi, S., M\u00e4esaar, M., Alban, L., Gomes-Neves, E., Vieira-Pinto, M., V\u00e5gsholm, I., Elias, T., Lindegaard, L.L., and Blagojevic, B. (2022). Salmonella enterica prevalence, serotype diversity, antimicrobial resistance and control in the European pork production chain. Trends Food Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2022.12.007"},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodcont.2021.107870","article-title":"Drivers, opportunities, and challenges of the European risk-based meat safety assurance system","volume":"124","author":"Blagojevic","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Control"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Low, C.X., Tan, L.T.-H., Ab Mutalib, N.-S., Pusparajah, P., Goh, B.-H., Chan, K.-G., Letchumanan, V., and Lee, L.-H. (2021). Unveiling the impact of antibiotics and alternative methods for animal husbandry: A review. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10050578"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Monger, X.C., Gilbert, A.-A., Saucier, L., and Vincent, A.T. (2021). Antibiotic resistance: From pig to meat. Antibiotics, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/antibiotics10101209"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vt Nair, D., Venkitanarayanan, K., and Kollanoor Johny, A. (2018). Antibiotic-resistant Salmonella in the food supply and the potential role of antibiotic alternatives for control. Foods, 7.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods7100167"},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kwoji, I.D., Aiyegoro, O.A., Okpeku, M., and Adeleke, M.A. (2021). Multi-strain probiotics: Synergy among isolates enhances biological activities. Biology, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology10040322"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"666","DOI":"10.1080\/07315724.2017.1337529","article-title":"Probiotics: From isolation to application","volume":"36","author":"Shokryazdan","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Am. Coll. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00688-21","DOI":"10.1128\/spectrum.00688-21","article-title":"Dynamic distribution of gut microbiota in pigs at different growth stages: Composition and contribution","volume":"10","author":"Luo","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Spectr."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1324","DOI":"10.1007\/s00284-017-1320-0","article-title":"Classification of culturable bifidobacterial population from colonic samples of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) based on three molecular genetic methods","volume":"74","author":"Pechar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Curr. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2349","DOI":"10.1099\/ijsem.0.001956","article-title":"Bifidobacterium apri sp. nov., a thermophilic actinobacterium isolated from the digestive tract of wild pigs (Sus scrofa)","volume":"67","author":"Pechar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Syst. Evol. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12727","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-30932-6","article-title":"Characterization of bacterial microbiota compositions along the intestinal tract in pigs and their interactions and functions","volume":"8","author":"Revilla","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2015-9868","article-title":"Phylogenetic diversity of cultivable butyrate-producing bacteria from pig gut content and feces","volume":"94","author":"Li","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1007\/s00253-013-5343-6","article-title":"Characterization of Bacillus spp. strains for use as probiotic additives in pig feed","volume":"98","author":"Larsen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_80","first-page":"519","article-title":"Gut microbes and health","volume":"44","author":"Real","year":"2021","journal-title":"Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4368","DOI":"10.3748\/wjg.v29.i28.4368","article-title":"Microbiota revolution: How gut microbes regulate our lives","volume":"29","author":"Colella","year":"2023","journal-title":"World J. Gastroenterol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"716761","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2021.716761","article-title":"Anti-inflammatory effect of probiotic Limosilactobacillus reuteri KUB-AC5 against Salmonella infection in a mouse colitis model","volume":"12","author":"Buddhasiri","year":"2021","journal-title":"Front. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105935","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2022.105935","article-title":"Assessment of the role and mechanism of Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis isolated from neonates\u2019 feces in protecting neonatal rats from Salmonella infection","volume":"174","author":"Lin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-016-0659-x","article-title":"Bifidobacterium thermophilum RBL67 impacts on growth and virulence gene expression of Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serovar Typhimurium","volume":"16","author":"Tanner","year":"2016","journal-title":"BMC Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"846991","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.846991","article-title":"Tibetan pig-derived probiotic Lactobacillus amylovorus SLZX20-1 improved intestinal function via producing enzymes and regulating intestinal microflora","volume":"9","author":"Shen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Muyyarikkandy, M.S., and Amalaradjou, M.A. (2017). Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus rhamnosus and Lactobacillus paracasei attenuate Salmonella enteritidis, Salmonella heidelberg and Salmonella typhimurium colonization and virulence gene expression in vitro. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms18112381"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793260","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2021.793260","article-title":"Parasite-probiotic interactions in the gut: Bacillus sp. and Enterococcus faecium regulate type-2 inflammatory responses and modify the gut microbiota of pigs during helminth infection","volume":"12","author":"Myhill","year":"2022","journal-title":"Front. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ailioaie, L.M., and Litscher, G. (2021). Probiotics, photobiomodulation, and disease management: Controversies and challenges. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms22094942"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"24","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-019-0402-1","article-title":"Clostridium species as probiotics: Potentials and challenges","volume":"11","author":"Guo","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1314","DOI":"10.5187\/jast.2021.e109","article-title":"Effects of Bacillus-based probiotics on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, and intestinal health of weaned pigs","volume":"63","author":"Mun","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Technol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-020-00498-3","article-title":"Dietary Bacillus spp. enhanced growth and disease resistance of weaned pigs by modulating intestinal microbiota and systemic immunity","volume":"11","author":"He","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Soares, M.B., Almada, C.N., Pereira, E.P.R., Ferreira, B.M., Balthazar, C.F., Khorshidian, N., Rocha, R.S., Xavier-Santos, D., Cruz, A.G., and Ranadheera, C.S. (2023). Sporeforming probiotic bacteria: Characteristics, health benefits, and technological aspects for their applications in foods and beverages. Trends Food Sci. Technol.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2023.06.029"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1080\/1040841X.2021.1983517","article-title":"Bacillus spore-forming probiotics: Benefits with concerns?","volume":"48","author":"Todorov","year":"2022","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109949","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2020.109949","article-title":"Antimicrobial resistance, virulence characteristics and genotypes of Bacillus spp. from probiotic products of diverse origins","volume":"139","author":"Deng","year":"2021","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2235","DOI":"10.1038\/ismej.2016.13","article-title":"Ecological robustness of the gut microbiota in response to ingestion of transient food-borne microbes","volume":"10","author":"Zhang","year":"2016","journal-title":"ISME J."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1016\/j.canlet.2019.11.019","article-title":"Clostridium butyricum, a butyrate-producing probiotic, inhibits intestinal tumor development through modulating Wnt signaling and gut microbiota","volume":"469","author":"Chen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cancer Lett."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yrtph.2016.11.010","article-title":"Safety assessment of Bacillus subtilis CU1 for use as a probiotic in humans","volume":"83","author":"Lefevre","year":"2017","journal-title":"Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"579","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-022-09939-z","article-title":"Probiotic potential of bacillus licheniformis and bacillus pumilus isolated from Tibetan yaks, China","volume":"14","author":"Zeng","year":"2022","journal-title":"Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins"},{"key":"ref_99","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112233","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lwt.2021.112233","article-title":"Identification and characterization of Bacillus coagulans strains for probiotic activity and safety","volume":"151","author":"Altun","year":"2021","journal-title":"LWT"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/12\/1779\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T14:57:58Z","timestamp":1760108278000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/14\/12\/1779"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]},"references-count":99,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ani14121779"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani14121779","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,13]]}}}