{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,25]],"date-time":"2026-09-25T17:01:32Z","timestamp":1790355692850,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":93,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1735257600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Objective: The study aims to assess the overall safety of cultured tilapias in Jeddah City, Saudi Arabia by assessing the impact of infection and anthropogenic pollution on farmed tilapias based on fish sex, body weight, length, and heavy metals contamination. Materials and methods: A total of 111 fish were collected from an aquaculture farm in Hada Al-Sham, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Physicochemical parameters of water from the culture system were evaluated. Both ecto- and endoparasites were checked. Haematological, biochemical and histopathological investigations were evaluated. In addition, heavy metals, namely, cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) were evaluated in different fish tissues and water samples from the aquaculture system. Results: The study revealed stressed aquaculture system. Tilapias were infested by both ectoparasites including Trichodina, Icthyophthirius multifiliis, Dactylogrus, and Cichlidogyrus, and endoparasites as Icthyophonus hoferi, the nematode Capillaria and coccidian protozoa. The study showed that male tilapias had greater infestation rates than females and longer and heavier male fish tended to be more susceptible to Dactylogyrus infection. Infected fish showed altered biochemical markers with subsequent increases in inflammatory and oxidative stress markers. The post-mortem lesion in the skin, gill lamellae, intestine, spleen, and liver showed significant pathological remarks. All investigated fish tissues revealed higher rates of heavy metals bioaccumulation compared to the surrounding waters. On the other hand, infected Nile tilapia tissues showed higher rate of metals accumulation compared to non-infected ones. Metals accumulated at a higher rate in the liver followed by kidney, intestine, gills, and muscles, respectively. Conclusions: This study is recognized as the first to address the food safety of farmed tilapias in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. The results emphasized a significant relation between parasites and heavy metal in disrupting fish defense systems and harming fish\u2019s physiological homeostasis and the histological state of tissues. The parasitized and polluted farmed fish pose health risk to humans due to possible zoonosis from parasitic infections and its subsequent bacterial infections with long-term exposure to toxic chemicals. Addressing the need for a combination of improved aquaculture practices, and stringent regulatory oversight.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15010039","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]],"date-time":"2024-12-27T02:59:27Z","timestamp":1735268367000},"page":"39","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Food Safety: Pathological and Biochemical Responses of Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) to Parasitological Infestation and Heavy Metals Pollution in Aquaculture System, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0447-8963","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muslimah N.","family":"Alsulami","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah Khaled","family":"Baowidan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Rabab M.","family":"Aljarari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-8974-8238","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Haleema H.","family":"Albohiri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6164-6719","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Samar A.","family":"Khan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, College of Science, University of Jeddah, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1114-7983","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elham Ali","family":"Elkhawass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Awuchi, C.G., Chukwu, C.N., Iyiola, A.O., Noreen, S., Morya, S., Adeleye, A.O., Twinomuhwezi, H., Leicht, K., Mitaki, N.B., and Okpala, C.O.R. (2022). Bioactive Compounds and Therapeutics from Fish: Revisiting Their Suitability in Functional Foods to Enhance Human Wellbeing. BioMed Res. Int., 2022.","DOI":"10.1155\/2022\/3661866"},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"243","article-title":"Nutritional Value of Fish: Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins, and Minerals","volume":"26","author":"Sampels","year":"2017","journal-title":"Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9734\/arrb\/2019\/v31i330052","article-title":"Tilapia\u2014An Excellent Candidate Species for World Aquaculture: A Review","volume":"31","author":"Prabu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Annu. Res. Rev. Biol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100620","DOI":"10.1016\/j.gfs.2022.100620","article-title":"Aquaculture: The missing contributor in the food security agenda","volume":"32","author":"Garlock","year":"2022","journal-title":"Glob. Food Secur."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Cunningham, L. (2005). Assessing the Contribution of Aquaculture to Food Security: A Survey of Methodologies, FAO."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Abd-Elrahman, S.M., Gareh, A., Mohamed, H.I., Alrashdi, B.M., Dyab, A.K., El-Khadragy, M.F., Khairy Elbarbary, N., Fouad, A.M., El-Gohary, F.A., and Elmahallawy, E.K. (2023). Prevalence and Morphological Investigation of Parasitic Infection in Freshwater Fish (Nile tilapia) from Upper Egypt. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13061088"},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1529","DOI":"10.1111\/jfd.13679","article-title":"A systematic review and meta-analysis of the relationship between farm management, water quality and pathogen outbreaks in tilapia culture","volume":"45","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Fish Dis."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"903","DOI":"10.1080\/16583655.2019.1658400","article-title":"Histopathological biomarking changes in the internal organs of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus) exposed to heavy metals contamination from Dandaru pond, Ibadan, Nigeria","volume":"13","author":"Abiona","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Taibah Univ. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"736110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2020.736110","article-title":"The impact of Moringa oleifera on the health status of Nile tilapia exposed to aflatoxicosis","volume":"533","author":"Abdelhiee","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113032","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecoenv.2021.113032","article-title":"Heavy metals bioaccumulation and subsequent multiple biomarkers based appraisal of toxicity in the critically endangered Tor putitora","volume":"228","author":"Ullah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ecotoxicol. Environ. Saf."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105828","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquatox.2021.105828","article-title":"Adsorptivity of mercury on magnetite nano-particles and their influences on growth, economical, hemato-biochemical, histological parameters and bioaccumulation in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)","volume":"235","author":"Mahboub","year":"2021","journal-title":"Aquat. Toxicol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ka\u00e7ar, E. (2024). Heavy metal concentrations in various tissues of two fish species from Damsa Dam Lake (Turkey) and associated health risk assessment. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., 81.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2023.127339"},{"key":"ref_13","first-page":"97","article-title":"Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in some tissues of fish in the Red Sea, Egypt","volume":"1","author":"Othman","year":"2014","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Basic Appl. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kumar, M., Singh, S., Jain, A., Yadav, S., Dubey, A., and Trivedi, S.P. (2024). A review on heavy metal-induced toxicity in fishes: Bioaccumulation, antioxidant defense system, histopathological manifestations, and transcriptional profiling of genes. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol., 83.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jtemb.2023.127377"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.17221\/4272-VETMED","article-title":"Metals as a cause of oxidative stress in fish: A review","volume":"56","author":"Sevcikova","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ishaq, S., Jabeen, G., Arshad, M., Kanwal, Z., Un Nisa, F., Zahra, R., Shafiq, Z., Ali, H., Samreen, K.B., and Manzoor, F. (2023). Heavy metal toxicity arising from the industrial effluents repercussions on oxidative stress, liver enzymes and antioxidant activity in brain homogenates of Oreochromis niloticus. Sci. Rep., 13.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-47366-4"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.5897\/AJB2004.000-2090","article-title":"Influence of sex, source, health status and acclimation on the haematology of Clarias gariepinus (Burch, 1822)","volume":"3","author":"Gabriel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Afr. J. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1946","DOI":"10.1002\/etc.5689","article-title":"Parasites and Pollutants: Effects of Multiple Stressors on Aquatic Organisms","volume":"42","author":"Grabner","year":"2023","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-017-2001-3","article-title":"Parasite responses to pollution: What we know and where we go in \u2018Environmental Parasitology\u2019","volume":"10","author":"Sures","year":"2017","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1400","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182011000977","article-title":"The parasitic nematodes Hysterothylacium sp. type MB larvae as bioindicators of lead and cadmium: A comparative study of parasite and host tissues","volume":"138","author":"Malek","year":"2011","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/1756-3305-6-21","article-title":"Comparison of the metal accumulation capacity between the acanthocephalan Pomphorhynchus laevis and larval nematodes of the genus Eustrongylides sp. infecting barbel (Barbus barbus)","volume":"6","author":"Nachev","year":"2013","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mehana, E.-S.E., Khafaga, A.F., Elblehi, S.S., Abd El-Hack, M.E., Naiel, M.A.E., Bin-Jumah, M., Othman, S.I., and Allam, A.A. (2020). Biomonitoring of Heavy Metal Pollution Using Acanthocephalans Parasite in Ecosystem: An Updated Overview. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10050811"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18742","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-9481-8","article-title":"Parasites and pollution: The effectiveness of tiny organisms in assessing the quality of aquatic ecosystems, with a focus on Africa","volume":"24","author":"Gilbert","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1053","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182007002508","article-title":"Parasites as heavy metal bioindicators in the shark Carcharhinus dussumieri from the Persian Gulf","volume":"134","author":"Malek","year":"2007","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Acosta-P\u00e9rez, V.J., \u00c1ngeles-Hern\u00e1ndez, J.C., Vega-S\u00e1nchez, V., Zepeda-Vel\u00e1zquez, A.P., A\u00f1orve-Morga, J., Ponce-Noguez, J.B., Reyes-Rodr\u00edguez, N.E., De-La-Rosa-Arana, J.L., Ram\u00edrez-Paredes, J.G., and G\u00f3mez-De-Anda, F.R. (2022). Prevalence of Parasitic Infections with Zoonotic Potential in Tilapia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12202800"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"SPA (2024, October 07). Report: Saudi Arabia\u2019s Fish Farm Production Soars by 56.4%, Available online: https:\/\/www.spa.gov.sa\/en\/N2184324."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Rice, E.W., Bridgewater, L., Association, A.P.H., Association, A.W.W., and Federation, W.E. (2012). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater, American Public Health Association."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2020.11.072","article-title":"An assessment of level of heavy metals pollution in the water, sediment and aquatic organisms: A perspective of tackling environmental threats for food security","volume":"28","author":"Pandiyan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","unstructured":"WHO (2019). Safety and Quality of Water Used in Food Production and Processing: Meeting Report, WHO."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.4314\/tjs.v49i1.2","article-title":"Prevalence of Endoparasites and Haematology in Redbelly Tilapia from a Shallow Tropical Reservoir in Ghana","volume":"49","author":"Alhassan","year":"2023","journal-title":"Tanzan. J. Sci."},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"582","article-title":"Prevalence of Internal Nematode Parasites of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Fish Species caught from Southwestern Part of Lake Tana, Central Gondar, Ethiopia","volume":"11","author":"Abiyu","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Aquac. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_32","unstructured":"Rollinson, D., and Stothard, R. (2024). Chapter Three\u2014Fish ectoparasite detection, collection and curation. Advances in Parasitology, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123459","DOI":"10.1016\/j.envpol.2024.123459","article-title":"Protozoan and helminths infestation of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and its correlation with certain water quality variables along river Nile in the area of Greater Cairo","volume":"345","author":"Sayed","year":"2024","journal-title":"Environ. Pollut."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shafiq, A., Abbas, F., Hafeez-Ur-Rehman, M., Khan, B.N., Aihetasham, A., Amin, I., Mothana, R.A., Alharbi, M.S., and Khan, I. (2023). Parasite Diversity in a Freshwater Ecosystem. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11081940"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.12.024","article-title":"Effects of oxygen concentration and body weight on maximum feed intake, growth and hematological parameters of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus","volume":"275","author":"Schrama","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"737498","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2021.737498","article-title":"Hematological methods in fish\u2014Not only for beginners","volume":"547","author":"Witeska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Suvarna, S.K., Layton, C., and Bancroft, J.D. (2019). 10\u2014The hematoxylins and eosin. Bancroft\u2019s Theory and Practice of Histological Techniques, Elsevier. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_38","first-page":"30","article-title":"Assessment of Heavy Metal Concentration in Fish Meat of Wild and Farmed Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Egypt","volume":"57","author":"Hamada","year":"2018","journal-title":"Alex. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"\u0141uczy\u0144ska, J., Pietrzak-Fie\u0107ko, R., Purkiewicz, A., and \u0141uczy\u0144ski, M.J. (2022). Assessment of Fish Quality Based on the Content of Heavy Metals. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijerph19042307"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1002\/aff2.58","article-title":"Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) culture in Kenya: Emerging production technologies and socio-economic impacts on local livelihoods","volume":"2","author":"Munguti","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aquac. Fish Fish."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8896604","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/8896604","article-title":"Management Practices, Farmers\u2019 Knowledge of Diseased Fish, and Their Occurrence in Fish Farms in Nyeri County, Kenya","volume":"2021","author":"Mulei","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2005.01415.x","article-title":"Comparative study of growth performance of three strains of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus, L. at two stocking densities","volume":"37","author":"Ridha","year":"2005","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.33140\/JMSRO.06.05.02","article-title":"Effect of Probiotics and Dietary Levels of Protein on Growth, Muscle Quality and Expression of Some Immune Genes in the Head Kidney of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)","volume":"6","author":"Ridha","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Mar. Sci. Res. Oceanogr."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.4025\/actascianimsci.v38i4.32051","article-title":"Reassessment of the suitable range of water pH for culture of Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus L. in eutrophic water","volume":"38","year":"2016","journal-title":"Acta Scientiarum. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sjbs.2021.08.098","article-title":"Growth performance, haematological assessment and chemical composition of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) fed different levels of Aloe vera extract as feed additives in a closed aquaculture system","volume":"29","author":"Syed","year":"2022","journal-title":"Saudi J. Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/s10695-005-5744-2","article-title":"Acute toxicity of nitrite on tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) at different external chloride concentrations","volume":"32","author":"Yanbo","year":"2006","journal-title":"Fish Physiol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1080\/10641260701624177","article-title":"Indicators of Resource Use Efficiency and Environmental Performance in Fish and Crustacean Aquaculture","volume":"15","author":"Boyd","year":"2007","journal-title":"Rev. Fish. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1111\/jwas.12241","article-title":"Alkalinity and Hardness: Critical but Elusive Concepts in Aquaculture","volume":"47","author":"Boyd","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. World Aquac. Soc."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Xu, Z., Cao, J., Qin, X., Qiu, W., Mei, J., and Xie, J. (2021). Toxic Effects on Bioaccumulation, Hematological Parameters, Oxidative Stress, Immune Responses and Tissue Structure in Fish Exposed to Ammonia Nitrogen: A Review. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11113304"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jip.2012.03.013","article-title":"Disease will limit future food supply from the global crustacean fishery and aquaculture sectors","volume":"110","author":"Stentiford","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Invertebr. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"396","DOI":"10.4172\/2473-3350.1000396","article-title":"Updates on Aquatic Parasites in Fisheries: Implications to Food Safety, Food Security and Environmental Protection","volume":"18","author":"Quiazon","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Coast. Zone Manag."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dominguez, H.N., Balian, S.C., Relvas, R.S., Soares, H.S., Queiroz, M.R., Martins, M.L., and Cardoso, P.H.M. (2023). Parasitological diagnosis in ornamental freshwater fish from different fish farmers of five Brazilian states. Braz. J. Biol., 83.","DOI":"10.1590\/1519-6984.270067"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.21608\/avmj.2017.170945","article-title":"Acanthogyrus Tilapiae Infections in Wild and Cultured Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus","volume":"63","author":"Abdallah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Assiut Vet. Med. J."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.21608\/ejabf.2020.67912","article-title":"Accumulation of PCBs and Infections of Parasitic helminthes in Synodontis filamentosus (Boulenger, 1901) and Tilapia zillii (Gervais, 1848) of Epe Lagoon, Lagos, Nigeria","volume":"24","author":"Akinsanya","year":"2020","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish."},{"key":"ref_55","first-page":"308","article-title":"Prevalence of Internal Parasites of Oreochromis niloticus and Clarias gariepinus Fish Species in Lake Ziway, Ethiopia","volume":"6","author":"Bekele","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Aquac. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"334","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0426.2006.00769.x","article-title":"Length\u2013weight relationships of fish species in the freshwater rift valley lakes of Kenya","volume":"22","author":"Britton","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Appl. Ichthyol."},{"key":"ref_57","first-page":"233","article-title":"Prevalence of Internal Parasitic Helminthes Infected Oreochromis niloticus (Nile tilapia), Clarias gariepinus (African catfish) and Cyprinus carpio (Common carp) in Lake Lugo (Hayke), Northeast Ethiopia","volume":"5","author":"Assen","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Aquac. Res. Dev."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1558","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12662","article-title":"Fish parasites can reflect environmental quality in fish farms","volume":"14","author":"Bertaglia","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_59","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ecto-parasites Infestation of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Concrete Ponds in Tamale, Ghana","volume":"5","author":"Baidoo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquac. Int."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3459","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-018-6042-0","article-title":"Effect of water quality on the parasite assemblages infecting Nile tilapia in selected fish farms in Nakuru County, Kenya","volume":"117","author":"Ojwala","year":"2018","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1487","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-015-0717-6","article-title":"Prevalence and seasonal variation of ectoparasites in cultured Nile tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in Saudi Arabia","volume":"40","author":"Suliman","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"130","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-013-0296-3","article-title":"Prevalence of ectoparasites in carp fry and fingerlings of Rajshahi district, Bangladesh","volume":"39","author":"Mortuza","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.20473\/jmv.vol6.iss2.2023.185-190","article-title":"Prevalence of Ectoparasites in Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) in Tarakan","volume":"6","author":"Ihsan","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Med. Vet."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.4314\/evj.v21i2.6","article-title":"A survey on occurrence of internal and external fish parasites and causes of fish population reduction in Lake Hashenge, Tigray, Ethiopia","volume":"21","author":"Tesfaye","year":"2017","journal-title":"Ethiop. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2139","DOI":"10.1242\/jeb.199.10.2139","article-title":"Functions of Fish Skin: Flexural Stiffness and Steady Swimming of Longnose Gar Lepisosteus osseus","volume":"199","author":"Long","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Exp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"807","DOI":"10.1177\/019262330002800607","article-title":"Review Article: Skin Ulcers in Fish: Pfiesteria and Other Etiologies","volume":"28","author":"Noga","year":"2000","journal-title":"Toxicol. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.1590\/S1517-83822011000100036","article-title":"Hematology and Productive Performance of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Naturally Infected With Flavobacterium columnare","volume":"42","author":"Nomura","year":"2011","journal-title":"Braz. J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"296","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-021-04796-1","article-title":"Host-multiparasite interactions in amphibians: A review","volume":"14","author":"Herczeg","year":"2021","journal-title":"Parasites Vectors"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-011-1932-1","article-title":"Individual and combined effects of multiple pathogens on Pacific treefrogs","volume":"166","author":"Romansic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100096","DOI":"10.1016\/j.fsirep.2023.100096","article-title":"Dynamics of co-infection in fish: A review of pathogen-host interaction and clinical outcome","volume":"4","author":"Okon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Fish Shellfish Immunol. Rep."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1079","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpara.2018.06.007","article-title":"Haemosporidian infection and co-infection affect host survival and reproduction in wild populations of great tits","volume":"48","author":"Pigeault","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Irshath, A.A., Rajan, A.P., Vimal, S., Prabhakaran, V.-S., and Ganesan, R. (2023). Bacterial Pathogenesis in Various Fish Diseases: Recent Advances and Specific Challenges in Vaccine Development. Vaccines, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vaccines11020470"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12908","article-title":"Epitheliocystis in fish: An emerging aquaculture disease with a global impact","volume":"65","author":"Blandford","year":"2018","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1721","DOI":"10.1111\/jfd.13694","article-title":"Prevalence of epitheliocystis in freshwater Atlantic salmon reared in flow-through and recirculation aquaculture systems","volume":"45","author":"Taylor","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Fish Dis."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"282","DOI":"10.5455\/javar.2022.i594","article-title":"The immunity function of rodlet cells in the intestine of Binni fish (Mesopotamichthys sharpeyi)","volume":"9","author":"Karim","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Adv. Vet. Anim. Res."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.3354\/dao072241","article-title":"Evidence for widespread distribution of piscidin antimicrobial peptides in teleost fish","volume":"72","author":"Silphaduang","year":"2006","journal-title":"Dis. Aquat. Org."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"187","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dci.2016.01.014","article-title":"Immunity to gastrointestinal microparasites of fish","volume":"64","author":"Estensoro","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dev. Comp. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1810","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meegid.2012.06.017","article-title":"Eimeria that infect fish are diverse and are related to, but distinct from, those that infect terrestrial vertebrates","volume":"12","author":"Ostoros","year":"2012","journal-title":"Infect. Genet. Evol."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.3347\/kjp.2018.56.3.215","article-title":"An Overview of Fish-borne Nematodiases among Returned Travelers for Recent 25 Years-Unexpected Diseases Sometimes Far Away from the Origin","volume":"56","author":"Eiras","year":"2018","journal-title":"Korean J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"22510","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-017-9923-3","article-title":"Toxic effects of copper on liver and cholinesterase of Clarias gariepinus","volume":"24","author":"Padrilah","year":"2017","journal-title":"Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2133","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2008.02057.x","article-title":"Host\u2013parasite interactions in polluted environments","volume":"73","author":"Sures","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.3923\/biotech.2008.139.143","article-title":"Natural Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Through Nematode Parasite of Fish","volume":"7","author":"Azmat","year":"2008","journal-title":"Biotechnology"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fern\u00e1ndez, A., C\u00e2mara, N., Sierra, E., Arbelo, M., Bernaldo de Quir\u00f3s, Y., Jepson, P.D., Deaville, R., D\u00edaz-Delgado, J., Su\u00e1rez-Santana, C., and Castro, A. (2023). Cetacean Intracytoplasmic Eosinophilic Globules: A Cytomorphological, Histological, Histochemical, Immunohistochemical, and Proteomic Characterization. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13132130"},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/S0045-6535(03)00657-X","article-title":"Effects of gallium on common carp (Cyprinus carpio): Acute test, serum biochemistry, and erythrocyte morphology","volume":"53","author":"Yang","year":"2003","journal-title":"Chemosphere"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.21608\/ejabf.2022.269384","article-title":"Molecular Identification of Enterogyrus sp. Parasite (Dactylogyridae: Ancyrocephalinae) and its Impact on the Health Status of the Red tilapia (Oreochromis sp.) in Egypt","volume":"26","author":"Maghawri","year":"2022","journal-title":"Egypt. J. Aquat. Biol. Fish."},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Steinel, N.C., and Bolnick, D.I. (2017). Melanomacrophage Centers as a Histological Indicator of Immune Function in Fish and Other Poikilotherms. Front. Immunol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2017.00827"},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.21608\/djvs.2019.18115.1004","article-title":"Efficacy of Dietary Probiotic Supplementation with Inclusion of Q Z Toss\u2122 on Nile tilapia","volume":"3","author":"Elgohary","year":"2019","journal-title":"Damanhour J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Waly, D., Muthupandian, A., Fan, C.-W., Anzinger, H., and Magor, B.G. (2022). Immunoglobulin VDJ repertoires reveal hallmarks of germinal centers in unique cell clusters isolated from zebrafish (Danio rerio) lymphoid tissues. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.1058877"},{"key":"ref_89","first-page":"75","article-title":"Influence of \\beta-1,3\/1,6 glucan applications on some non-specific cellular immune response and haematologic parameters of healthy Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus L., 1758)","volume":"34","author":"Duman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.etap.2019.03.016","article-title":"Lycopene and resveratrol ameliorate zinc oxide nanoparticles-induced oxidative stress in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus","volume":"69","author":"Eissa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198","DOI":"10.1080\/23308249.2020.1795616","article-title":"Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant Defense in Fish: The Implications of Probiotic, Prebiotic, and Synbiotics","volume":"29","author":"Hoseinifar","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Fish. Sci. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"332","DOI":"10.1007\/s12639-020-01220-w","article-title":"Evaluation of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-\u03b1); gamma interferon (IFN-\u03b3) genes and oxidative stress in sheep: Immunological responses induced by Oestrus ovis (Diptera: Oestridae) infestation","volume":"44","author":"Attia","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Parasit. Dis."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zou, J., and Secombes, C.J. (2016). The Function of Fish Cytokines. Biology, 5.","DOI":"10.3390\/biology5020023"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/1\/39\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,10]],"date-time":"2025-10-10T17:01:06Z","timestamp":1760115666000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/1\/39"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]},"references-count":93,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ani15010039"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani15010039","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,27]]}}}