{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,15]],"date-time":"2026-10-15T21:59:07Z","timestamp":1792101547233,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1740700800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Zoetis"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Sheep and goats are an important source of livelihood for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). These livestock are almost entirely managed by resource-poor, smallholder farmers and pastoralists. Despite the large number of sheep and goats in SSA, their productivity is low, mainly due to diseases, poor feed, and inferior breeds. This review aims to summarize the most important diseases in small ruminants in SSA, with a focus on current treatment and control strategies. The following diseases were identified as the most significant constraints for small ruminant farmers: helminthoses, including gastrointestinal nematode infestation, lungworm infestation, fasciolosis, and cerebral coenurosis; viral diseases, such as peste des petits ruminants (PPR), sheep and goat pox, and contagious ecthyma (orf); bacterial diseases, including contagious caprine pleuropneumonia (CCPP), pneumonic pasteurellosis, and anthrax; as well as ectoparasite infestations. The diseases have significant economic implications due to mortality and production losses. Depending on the disease, they may also impact trade and export and hinder the introduction of new, more productive breeds. The ability to control diseases more efficiently is often limited due to financial constraints. In the case of infection with internal parasites, a lack of knowledge about the epidemiology of the disease, as well as the availability of appropriate anthelmintics and the development of resistance against commonly used anthelmintics, are often barriers. The control of viral diseases depends on the accessibility, quality, and handling of vaccines, whereas in bacterial diseases, increasing antibiotic resistance and inappropriate antimicrobial treatments pose challenges, as well as the availability of appropriate vaccines and their use. In the case of ectoparasitic infections, a strategic, regular, and appropriate antiparasitic treatment approach is often not achieved.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15050706","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,3]],"date-time":"2025-03-03T04:10:42Z","timestamp":1740975042000},"page":"706","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":23,"title":["Important Diseases of Small Ruminants in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Review with a Focus on Current Strategies for Treatment and Control in Smallholder Systems"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9587-4952","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Peter","family":"Kimeli","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, Nairobi 29053-00625, Kenya"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kennedy","family":"Mwacalimba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Outcomes Research, Zoetis, Parsippany, NJ 07054, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Raymond","family":"Tiernan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centre of Excellence, Zoetis, D18 T3Y1 Dublin, Ireland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Erik","family":"Mijten","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoetis Belgium S.A., 1930 Zaventem, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Tetiana","family":"Miroshnychenko","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Zoetis Belgium S.A., 1930 Zaventem, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Poulsen Nautrup","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"EAH-Consulting, 52064 Aachen, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1722","DOI":"10.1017\/S1751731117002592","article-title":"Review: Optimizing Ruminant Conversion of Feed Protein to Human Food Protein","volume":"12","author":"Broderick","year":"2018","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"George, J. 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