{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,13]],"date-time":"2026-09-13T23:21:48Z","timestamp":1789341708399,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]],"date-time":"2025-06-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749427200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["020002\/D015\/2024"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["020002\/D015\/2024"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is under neural, endocrine and paracrine control. The release (basal and in the presence of either cholinergic and opioid antagonists) of Met-enkephalin, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and somatostatin (SRIF) was determined quantitatively in vitro using explants of the crop, proventriculus and duodenum from either day 0 or day 1 chicks. In addition, the effects of cholinergic and opioid antagonists on PENK gene expression were examined. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the roles of cholinergic and opioid receptors in the GI tract in newly hatched chickens. Moreover, the effect of IGF-1 and Met-enkephalin on cell division in duodenal explants in vitro was determined. There was both the release of Met-enkephalin from, and PENK expression in, the explants of the crop, proventriculus and duodenum tissue. This is the first report of any neuropeptide(s) being synthesized in and\/or released from the crop. In vitro release of Met-enkephalin, IGF-1 and SRIF from duodenal and proventriculus explants was influenced (p &lt; 0.01) by either cholinergic or opioid antagonists; for instance, in the presence of atropine, decreases (p &lt; 0.001) of 17.8% and 57.7% are seen, respectively, in Met-enkephalin release and PENK expression in crop explants from day 1 chicks. Moreover, in the presence of atropine, there were increases (p &lt; 0.001) of 47.7% and 70.9% in IGF-1 release in proventriculus explants from, respectively, day 0 and day 1 chicks. Met-enkephalin and\/or IGF-1 stimulated the cell division of duodenal explants in vitro. This is the first report of Met-enkephalin release and PENK expression in the avian crop and of the effects of cholinergic or opioid antagonists on these factors. It is also the first report of either cholinergic or opioid control of IGF-1 release in the periphery of any species. There were strong relationships (p &lt; 0.05) between the release of Met-enkephalin and that of IGF-1 in the duodenum and between the release of SRIF and that of IGF-1 in the proventriculus. This is the first report of IGF-1 and Met-enkephalin stimulating (p &lt; 0.001) the proliferation of duodenal cells and, together, exerting a synergist effect. It is concluded that the release of Met-enkephalin, IGF-1 and SRIF from foregut regions is under tonic cholinergic and opioid control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15121702","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]],"date-time":"2025-06-09T05:54:05Z","timestamp":1749448445000},"page":"1702","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Effects of Cholinergic and Opioid Antagonists on In Vitro Release of Met-Enkephalin, Somatostatin and Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 by and PENK Expression in Crop, Proventriculus and Duodenum of Newly Hatched Chickens"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4543-143X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Colin G.","family":"Scanes","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biological Sciences, University of Wisconsin Milwaukee, 3209 N Maryland Ave, Milwaukee, WI 53211, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0337-7028","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Klaudia","family":"Jaszcza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Physiology and Endocrinology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1692-2459","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alina","family":"Gajewska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The Kielanowski Institute of Animal Physiology and Nutrition, Polish Academy of Sciences, Instytucka 3 Street, 05-110 Jab\u0142onna, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Krystyna","family":"Pierzchala-Koziec","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Physiology and Endocrinology, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Mickiewicza 21, 31-120 Krakow, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"972","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(77)92277-2","article-title":"Enkephalin-like immunoreactivity in the human gastrointestinal tract","volume":"309","author":"Polak","year":"1977","journal-title":"Lancet"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"948","DOI":"10.1136\/gut.25.9.948","article-title":"VIP-, substance P- and met-enkephalin-immunoreactive innervation of the human gastroduodenal mucosa and Brunner\u2019s glands","volume":"25","author":"Ferri","year":"1984","journal-title":"Gut"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"653","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(83)90001-5","article-title":"Distribution and projections of nerves with enkephalin-like immunoreactivity","volume":"8","author":"Furness","year":"1983","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.02-07-00861.1982","article-title":"Immunocytochemical and ultrastructural differentiation between Met-enkephalin-, Leu-enkephalin-, and Met\/Leu-enkephalin-immunoreactive neurons of feline gut","volume":"2","author":"Larsson","year":"1982","journal-title":"J. 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