{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T03:14:21Z","timestamp":1791947661622,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":48,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1754438400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"University of Cambridge"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Cervical myoclonus (CM) has been associated with intervertebral disc extrusion (IVDE), with a higher prevalence in French Bulldogs. The presence of CM in other breeds and with other aetiologies has not been reported. The purpose of this study was to describe the signalment, neurological examination, neuroanatomical localisation and grade, imaging findings, diagnosis, treatment, follow-up and resolution of CM in dogs. An observational multicentred retrospective analysis identified 173 dogs with CM; of those, 113 met the inclusion criteria. French Bulldogs (n = 52\/113, 46%), Beagles (n = 8\/113, 7.1%), Chihuahuas and Shih-Tzus (n = 6\/113 for each, 5.31%) were the most affected breeds. Apparent cervical pain was the most common finding on neurologic examination (n = 70\/113, 62%). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was consistent with nerve root impingement in 17% (n = 19\/113) of the dogs. The most frequently diagnosed conditions were degenerative (n = 100\/113, 88.5%), inflammatory (n = 8\/113, 7.1%), neoplastic (n = 3\/113, 2.7%), vascular (n = 1\/113, 0.9%) and congenital (n = 1\/113, 0.9%) in origin. Dogs with a neoplastic aetiology tended to be older than those with other causes. Follow-up was recorded in 77 dogs, and 75 of these (n = 75\/77, 97.4%) had resolution of the CM. The results supported that cervical myoclonus can be caused by various underlying conditions and can affect different dog breeds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15152298","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]],"date-time":"2025-08-06T10:13:51Z","timestamp":1754475231000},"page":"2298","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Evaluation of Cervical Myoclonus in Dogs with Spinal Diseases: 113 Cases (2014\u20132023)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9104-6260","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ana","family":"Martinez","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2331-0872","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emili","family":"Alcoverro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, ChesterGates Veterinary Specialists, Chester CH1 6LT, UK"},{"name":"Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, AniCura Ars Veterinaria Hospital Veterinari, 08034 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0669-0420","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edward","family":"Ives","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Anderson Moores Veterinary Specialists, Winchester SO21 2LL, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6855-9893","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lisa","family":"Alves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Madingley Road, Cambridge CB3 0ES, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"510","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.22.11.0507","article-title":"Cervical Jerks as a Sign of Cervical Pain or Myelopathy in Dogs","volume":"261","author":"Olender","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1032","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16404","article-title":"Myoclonus in Older Cavalier King Charles Spaniels","volume":"36","author":"Rotter","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.14771","article-title":"Classification of Involuntary Movements in Dogs: Myoclonus and Myotonia","volume":"31","author":"Lowrie","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.1177\/1756285610395653","article-title":"Myoclonic Disorders: A Practical Approach for Diagnosis and Treatment","volume":"4","author":"Kojovic","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ther. Adv. Neurol. Disord."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1002\/epi4.12917","article-title":"Myoclonus: Differential Diagnosis and Current Management","volume":"9","author":"Riva","year":"2024","journal-title":"Epilepsia Open"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1038\/nrneurol.2009.196","article-title":"The Clinical Approach to Movement Disorders","volume":"6","author":"Abdo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marsden, C.D., and Fahn, S. (1981). The Nosology and Pathophysiology of Myoclonus. Movement Disorders, Butterworth-Heinemann.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-407-02295-9.50018-7"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.61.6.641","article-title":"Changes in Spinal Cord Excitability in a Patient with Rhythmic Segmental Myoclonus","volume":"61","author":"Restuccia","year":"1996","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"bcr-2018","DOI":"10.1136\/bcr-2018-225455","article-title":"Spinal Myoclonus: A Rare Presentation of Cervical Myelopathy","volume":"2018","author":"Christodoulides","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ Case Rep."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jns.2011.09.036","article-title":"Reversible Propriospinal Myoclonus Due to Thoracic Disc Herniation: Long-Term Follow-Up","volume":"313","author":"Jang","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1025","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1986.00520100039012","article-title":"Segmental myoclonus. Clinical and Pharmacologic Study","volume":"43","author":"Jankovic","year":"1986","journal-title":"Arch. Neurol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1186\/s40734-015-0028-1","article-title":"Spinal-Generated Movement Disorders: A Clinical Review","volume":"2","author":"Termsarasab","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Clin. Mov. Disord."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1218","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16108","article-title":"International Veterinary Canine Dyskinesia Task Force ECVN Consensus Statement: Terminology and Classification","volume":"35","author":"Packer","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1528-1157.44.s11.5.x","article-title":"Treatment Strategies for Myoclonic Seizures and Epilepsy Syndromes with Myoclonic Seizures","volume":"44","author":"Wheless","year":"2003","journal-title":"Epilepsia"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2138","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15552","article-title":"Behavioral and Clinical Signs of Chiari-like malformation-associated Pain and syringomyelia in Cavalier King Charles Spaniels","volume":"33","author":"Rusbridge","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1136\/inp.m1869","article-title":"New Considerations about Chiari-like malformation, syringomyelia and their management","volume":"42","author":"Rusbridge","year":"2020","journal-title":"Practice"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"856","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.15398","article-title":"Myoclonus and Hypercalcemia in a Dog with Poorly Differentiated Lymphoproliferative Neoplasia","volume":"33","author":"Hare","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1467-2995.2003.00076.x","article-title":"Myoclonus and Urinary Retention Following Subarachnoid Morphine Injection in a Dog","volume":"30","author":"Pibarot","year":"2003","journal-title":"Vet. Anaesth. Analg."},{"key":"ref_19","first-page":"983","article-title":"Severe Pruritus and Myoclonus Following Intrathecal Morphine Administration in a Dog","volume":"53","author":"Iff","year":"2012","journal-title":"Can. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"284","DOI":"10.1016\/j.mayocp.2014.09.008","article-title":"Epidemiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment of Neck Pain","volume":"90","author":"Cohen","year":"2015","journal-title":"Mayo Clin. Proc."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2013.03.002","article-title":"Myokymia and neuromyotonia in veterinary medicine: A comparison with peripheral nerve hyperexcitability syndrome in humans","volume":"197","author":"Vanhaesebrouck","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. J"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.4142\/jvs.2016.17.3.337","article-title":"Retrospective Study of the Clinical Effects of Acupuncture on Cervical Neurological Diseases in Dogs","volume":"17","author":"Liu","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Neill, D.G., McMillan, K.M., Church, D.B., and Brodbelt, D.C. (2023). Dog Breeds and Conformations in the UK in 2019: VetCompass Canine Demography and Some Consequent Welfare Implications. PLoS ONE, 18.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0288081"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mayousse, V., Desquilbet, L., Jeandel, A., and Blot, S. (2017). Prevalence of Neurological Disorders in French Bulldog: A Retrospective Study of 343 Cases (2002\u20132016). BMC Vet. Res., 13.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-017-1132-2"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2009","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.1992.200.12.2009","article-title":"Characteristics of Dogs Admitted for Treatment of Cervical Intervertebral Disk Disease 105 Cases (1972\u20131982)","volume":"200","author":"Dallman","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gon\u00e7alves, R., De Decker, S., Walmsley, G., Butterfield, S., and Maddox, T.W. (2022). Inflammatory Disease Affecting the Central Nervous System in Dogs: A Retrospective Study in England (2010\u20132019). Front. Vet. Sci., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2021.819945"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1748-5827.2000.tb03205.x","article-title":"Long-term Treatment of Dogs with Steroid-responsive Meningitis-arteritis: Clinical, Laboratory and Therapeutic Results","volume":"41","author":"Cizinauskas","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2018.12.007","article-title":"Clinical Presentation, Diagnostic Findings, Prognostic Factors, Treatment and Outcome in Dogs with Meningoencephalomyelitis of Unknown Origin: A Review","volume":"244","author":"Cornelis","year":"2019","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1500","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.12182","article-title":"Intramedullary Spinal Cord Neoplasia in 53 Dogs (1990\u20132010): Distribution, Clinicopathologic Characteristics, and Clinical Behavior","volume":"27","author":"Pancotto","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barillaro, G., Tabb\u00ec, M., Minniti, S., Iannelli, N.M., Macr\u00ec, F., and Interlandi, C. (2025). Treatment of Canine Atlantoaxial Subluxation with a Modified Cervical Distraction\u2013Stabilization Technique and Clinical Outcomes. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15050716"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Forterre, F., Zorgevica-Pockevica, L., Precht, C., Haenssgen, K., Stein, V., and D\u00fcver, P. (2023). Clinical Evaluation of a New Surgical Augmentation Technique for Transarticular Atlantoaxial Fixation for Treatment of Atlantoaxial Instability. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13111780"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e17284","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.17284","article-title":"Clinical Characteristics Associated with Cervical Hydrated Nucleus Pulposus Extrusion in Dogs","volume":"39","author":"Lin","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Capasso, M., Canal, S., and Balducci, F. (2024). Prevalence of Neurological Diseases Associated with Cervical Pain and\/or Signs of Cervical Myelopathy in French Bulldogs: A Retrospective Analysis of 105 Cases. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1431358"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1862","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.0000000000000982","article-title":"Propriospinal Myoclonus: Clinical Reappraisal and Review of Literature","volume":"83","author":"Erro","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"316","DOI":"10.5326\/0400316","article-title":"A Retrospective Comparison of Cervical Intervertebral Disk Disease in Nonchondrodystrophic Large Dogs Versus Small Dogs","volume":"40","author":"Cherrone","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Am. Anim. Hosp. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1111\/jsap.12987","article-title":"Cervical Hyperaesthesia in Dogs: An Epidemiological Retrospective Study of 185 Cases","volume":"60","author":"Vettorato","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Small Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"448","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.105818","article-title":"Clinical Reasoning in Canine Cervical Hyperaesthesia: Which Presenting Features Are Important?","volume":"187","author":"Grapes","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1602","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-4598(199712)20:12<1602::AID-MUS21>3.0.CO;2-0","article-title":"Peripheral Myoclonus Due to Spinal Root Lesion","volume":"20","author":"Seidel","year":"1997","journal-title":"Muscle Nerve"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"582","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.48.6.582","article-title":"Brachial Plexus Myoclonus","volume":"48","author":"Banks","year":"1985","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clineuro.2014.03.016","article-title":"Myoclonus of the Serratus Anterior Muscle after Posterolateral Thoracotomy","volume":"122","author":"Lagueny","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clin. Neurol. Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1111","DOI":"10.1111\/jvim.16982","article-title":"Clinical and Imaging Findings in Dogs with Nerve Root Signature Associated with Cervical Intervertebral Disc Herniation","volume":"38","author":"Schachar","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Vet. Intern. Med."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"674","DOI":"10.1097\/AAP.0000000000000323","article-title":"Cervical Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections: Diagnostic and Therapeutic Value","volume":"40","author":"Costandi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Reg. Anesth. Pain Med."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"567","DOI":"10.1302\/0301-620X.104B5.BJJ-2021-1816.R1","article-title":"Cervical Transforaminal Epidural Steroid Injections for Radicular Pain: A Systematic Review","volume":"104-B","author":"Borton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bone Joint J."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giambuzzi, S., Pancotto, T., and Ruth, J. (2016). Perineural Injection for Treatment of Root-Signature Signs Associated with Lateralized Disk Material in Five Dogs (2009\u20132013). Front. Vet. Sci., 3.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2016.00001"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"999","DOI":"10.2460\/javma.258.9.999","article-title":"Ultrasound-Guided Paravertebral Perineural Glucocorticoid Injection for Signs of Refractory Cervical Pain Associated with Foraminal Intervertebral Disk Protrusion in Four Dogs","volume":"258","author":"Wolf","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"44","DOI":"10.1016\/j.wneu.2019.12.170","article-title":"Treatment of Spinal Myoclonus Due to Degenerative Compression Myelopathy with Cervical Spinal Cord Stimulation: A Report of 2 Cases","volume":"136","author":"Voll","year":"2020","journal-title":"World Neurosurg."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"394","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.68.3.394","article-title":"Cervical Syringomyelia at the C7-C8 Level Presenting with Bilateral Scapular Winging","volume":"68","author":"Niedermaier","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1159\/000515519","article-title":"Surgical Treatment of Upper Extremity Segmental Myoclonus in an Adolescent with Chiari Malformation and Cervicothoracic Syrinx","volume":"56","author":"Tucker","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pediatr. Neurosurg."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/15\/2298\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,9]],"date-time":"2025-10-09T18:24:19Z","timestamp":1760034259000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/15\/2298"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]},"references-count":48,"journal-issue":{"issue":"15","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8]]}},"alternative-id":["ani15152298"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani15152298","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,6]]}}}