{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,24]],"date-time":"2026-07-24T15:14:08Z","timestamp":1784906048653,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759190400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"National Key Research and Development Program of China","award":["2022ZD0115705"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2022ZD0115705"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Accurate recognition of estrus behavior in sows is of great importance for achieving scientific breeding management, improving reproductive efficiency, and reducing labor costs in modern pig farms. However, due to the evident spatiotemporal continuity, stage-specific changes, and ambiguous category boundaries of estrus behaviors, traditional methods based on static images or manual observation suffer from low efficiency and high misjudgment rates in practical applications. To address these issues, this study follows a video-based behavior recognition approach and designs three deep learning model structures: (Convolutional Neural Network combined with Long Short-Term Memory) CNN + LSTM, (Three-Dimensional Convolutional Neural Network) 3D-CNN, and (Convolutional Neural Network combined with Temporal Convolutional Network) CNN + TCN, aiming to achieve high-precision recognition and classification of four key behaviors (SOB, SOC, SOS, SOW) during the estrus process in sows. In terms of data processing, a sliding window strategy was adopted to slice the annotated video sequences, constructing image sequence samples with uniform length. The training, validation, and test sets were divided in a 6:2:2 ratio, ensuring balanced distribution of behavior categories. During model training and evaluation, a systematic comparative analysis was conducted from multiple aspects, including loss function variation (Loss), accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, confusion matrix, and ROC-AUC curves. Experimental results show that the CNN + TCN model performed best overall, with validation accuracy exceeding 0.98, F1-score approaching 1.0, and an average AUC value of 0.9988, demonstrating excellent recognition accuracy and generalization ability. The 3D-CNN model performed well in recognizing short-term dynamic behaviors (such as SOC), achieving a validation F1-score of 0.91 and an AUC of 0.770, making it suitable for high-frequency, short-duration behavior recognition. The CNN + LSTM model exhibited good robustness in handling long-duration static behaviors (such as SOB and SOS), with a validation accuracy of 0.99 and an AUC of 0.9965. In addition, this study further developed an intelligent recognition system with front-end visualization, result feedback, and user interaction functions, enabling local deployment and real-time application of the model in farming environments, thus providing practical technical support for the digitalization and intelligentization of reproductive management in large-scale pig farms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15192868","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]],"date-time":"2025-09-30T14:16:29Z","timestamp":1759241789000},"page":"2868","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Spatiotemporal Modeling and Intelligent Recognition of Sow Estrus Behavior for Precision Livestock Farming"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Kaidong","family":"Lei","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bugao","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hua","family":"Yang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hao","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100083, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Di","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Information Science and Engineering, Shanxi Agricultural University, Jinzhong 030801, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benhai","family":"Xiong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Institute of Animal Sciences, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,9,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.56556\/gssr.v3i3.954","article-title":"An overview of precision livestock farming (plf) technologies for digitalizing animal husbandry toward sustainability","volume":"3","author":"Himu","year":"2024","journal-title":"Glob. 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