{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,22]],"date-time":"2026-07-22T15:42:53Z","timestamp":1784734973653,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":85,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]],"date-time":"2025-10-04T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1759536000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["www.mdpi.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Camelids are increasingly recognized as important livestock species. They are valuable sources of meat, fiber, and milk. Despite their growing popularity, many aspects of their reproductive physiology and pathology remain unclear. Their reproductive performance is reported to be low in many countries. Advances in camelid veterinary care have identified several disorders, some of which are species-specific. This article describes an approach to and the diagnosis of infertility and subfertility cases in alpacas, llamas, and camels referred to the authors over the past 35 years. Ultrasonography, endometrial cytology, and biopsy are the primary diagnostic tools for practitioners. However, laparoscopy, hysteroscopy, and cytogenetics are indicated for cases referred to theriogenologists. The incidence of congenital and acquired reproductive disorders is presented. A high incidence of congenital defects of the reproductive tract is found in South American camelids, which raises concerns about animal welfare. Acquired disorders are similar to those described in other species. Endometritis and endometrosis are major disorders contributing to infertility and early pregnancy loss. However, studies on uterine defense mechanisms and the pathogenesis of these disorders are lacking. Hydrobursitis, a common cause of infertility in dromedary camels, warrants further research. The implications of some contagious diseases (tuberculosis, campylobacteriosis, and brucellosis) in female infertility are discussed. These findings emphasize the importance of including camelid medicine in veterinary education to ensure a high standard of care for this species.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15192902","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,6]],"date-time":"2025-10-06T11:42:49Z","timestamp":1759750969000},"page":"2902","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Advances in the Diagnosis of Reproductive Disorders in Female Camelids"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"given":"Abdelmalek","family":"Sghiri","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Veterinary Medicine, Instituts Agronomique et V\u00e9t\u00e9rinaire Hassan II, Rabat-Instituts, P.O. Box 6202, Rabat 10101, Morocco"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9559-6366","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michela","family":"Ciccarelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Muhammad S.","family":"Waqas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abelhaq","family":"Anouassi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Advanced Scientific Group, ASG Sweihan, Abu Dhabi P.O. Box 45803, United Arab Emirates"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Ahmed","family":"Tibary","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,4]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1155","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-018-1545-3","article-title":"Factors Affecting Reproductive Performance in Dromedary Camel Herds in Saudi Arabia","volume":"50","author":"Ali","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_2","first-page":"6641361","article-title":"Reproductive Diseases and Disorders of Female Camels: An Assessment and Pathological and Bacteriological Study in Eastern Ethiopia","volume":"2021","author":"Dinaol","year":"2021","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Sghiri, A. (1988). 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