{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:31:23Z","timestamp":1787027483887,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":66,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"20","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1760486400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"E!219 EarlyCOD project"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Early life nutrition is a critical factor influencing subsequent performance and quality, including skeletal development, in farmed Atlantic cod (Gadus morhua). This study investigated the effects of a novel start-feed protocol utilizing barnacle nauplii and plankton eggs and two experimental microdiets on larval survival, growth, skeletal anomalies, and organ ontogeny. Atlantic cod larvae were reared using three feeding protocols (COM, D1, and D2): COM used enriched rotifers and a commercial microdiet, while D1 and D2 protocols incorporated blue mussel eggs (Cryo-\u00b5) and barnacle nauplii (Cryo-S, Cryo-L), followed by inert microdiets that differed in their phospholipid (PL) source (D1 richer in vegetable PL; D2 richer in marine PL). Larvae were sampled up to 66 days post hatching (dph) for morphometric, skeletal anomaly, and histological analyses. Survival averaged 21.3% and was unaffected by the diets. The control group had slightly higher standard length and dry weight at 66 dph compared to the experimental groups. However, larvae fed the D1 protocol exhibited a significantly lower overall prevalence of skeletal anomalies (52%) compared to the control group (91%). Moreover, D1 showed a lower occurrence of severe anomalies and a significantly reduced prevalence of scoliosis compared to both D2 and COM groups. Histology showed that group D1 achieved an overall accelerated organ ontogeny, with greater villi length and goblet cell abundance in the anterior intestine at 66 dph. In conclusion, the novel D1 feeding protocol, incorporating barnacle nauplii and a microdiet richer in vegetable phospholipids, enhanced larval quality by effectively reducing skeletal anomalies and accelerating internal organ development.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15202985","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]],"date-time":"2025-10-15T11:57:42Z","timestamp":1760529462000},"page":"2985","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Early Nutrition Impacts on Growth, Skeletal Anomalies and Organ Ontogeny in Larval Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0555-3213","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joana","family":"Pedro","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"},{"name":"SINTEF Ocean, 7010 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jo\u00e3o","family":"Henriques","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPAROS, Lda., 8700-221 Olh\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maria","family":"Bergvik","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SINTEF Ocean, 7010 Trondheim, Norway"},{"name":"Ode AS, 7105 Stadsbygd, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Konstantinos","family":"Tzakris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Planktonic AS, 7018 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0152-213X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michael","family":"Viegas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"S2AQUA\u2014Collaborative Laboratory, Association for a Sustainable and Smart Aquaculture, 8700-194 Olh\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7737-2385","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katerina","family":"Loufi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biology, University of Patras, Rio Achaias, 265 04 Patras, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2550-1640","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jorge M. O.","family":"Fernandes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Biosciences and Aquaculture, Nord University, 8049 Bod\u00f8, Norway"},{"name":"Department of Renewable Resources, Institute of Marine Sciences (ICM-CSIC), 08005 Barcelona, Spain"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3758-0849","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Benjam\u00edn","family":"Costas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIIMAR-Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, 4450-208 Matosinhos, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto de Ci\u00eancias Biom\u00e9dicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS-UP), Universidade do Porto, 4050-313 Porto, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Nils","family":"Tokle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Planktonic AS, 7018 Trondheim, Norway"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6102-2068","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lu\u00eds E. C.","family":"Concei\u00e7\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SPAROS, Lda., 8700-221 Olh\u00e3o, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3457","DOI":"10.1007\/s10499-023-01133-4","article-title":"Optimizing Intensive Culture Protocols for Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae","volume":"31","author":"Puvanendran","year":"2023","journal-title":"Aquacult. Int."},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"ICES Advice (2004). Report of the ICES Advisory Committee on Fishery Management and Advisory Committee on Ecosystems. Evaluation, 1, 1544."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12599","article-title":"Development of Cod Farming in Norway: Past and Current Biological and Market Status and Future Prospects and Directions","volume":"14","author":"Puvanendran","year":"2022","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.2010.02652.x","article-title":"The Influence of First-feeding Diet on the Atlantic Cod Gadus morhua Phenotype: Survival, Development and Long-term Consequences for Growth","volume":"77","author":"Koedijk","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"271","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2015.09.014","article-title":"A Little Goes a Long Way: Improved Growth in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Fed Small Amounts of Wild Zooplankton","volume":"451","author":"Katan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"224","DOI":"10.1111\/anu.12550","article-title":"You Are What You Eat? Differences in Lipid Composition of Cod Larvae Reared on Natural Zooplankton and Enriched Rotifers","volume":"24","author":"Folkvord","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquacult. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holt, G.J. (2011). Proteins. Larval Fish Nutrition, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470959862"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S26","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1753-5131.2012.01086.x","article-title":"Fish Larval Nutrition and Feed Formulation: Knowledge Gaps and Bottlenecks for Advances in Larval Rearing","volume":"5","author":"Hamre","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"41","article-title":"The Production and Use of Copepods in Larval Rearing of Halibut, Turbot and Cod","volume":"4","author":"Shields","year":"1998","journal-title":"Bull. Aquac. Assoc. Can."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1015","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2006.01523.x","article-title":"Short- and Long-Term Differences in Growth, Feed Conversion Efficiency and Deformities in Juvenile Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Startfed on Rotifers or Zooplankton","volume":"37","author":"Imsland","year":"2006","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.icesjms.2005.11.011","article-title":"Nutrition in Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae and Juveniles","volume":"63","author":"Hamre","year":"2006","journal-title":"ICES J. Mar. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2009.02242.x","article-title":"Live Feeds for Early Stages of Fish Rearing","volume":"41","author":"Makridis","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1727","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2009.02450.x","article-title":"Natural Zooplankton as Larval Feed in Intensive Rearing Systems for Juvenile Production of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.): Farmed Cod Larvae Fed Natural Zooplankton","volume":"41","author":"Busch","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"308","DOI":"10.1016\/j.redox.2015.06.003","article-title":"Diet Affects the Redox System in Developing Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae","volume":"5","author":"Penglase","year":"2015","journal-title":"Redox Biol."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1111\/anu.12352","article-title":"Effect of Cultivated Copepods (Acartia tonsa) in First-Feeding of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) and Ballan Wrasse (Labrus bergylta) Larvae","volume":"23","author":"Galloway","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquacult. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rise, M.L., Hall, J.R., Nash, G.W., Xue, X., Booman, M., Katan, T., and Gamperl, A.K. (2015). Transcriptome Profiling Reveals That Feeding Wild Zooplankton to Larval Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Influences Suites of Genes Involved in Oxidation-Reduction, Mitosis, and Selenium Homeostasis. BMC Genom., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12864-015-2120-1"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e902","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.902","article-title":"Copepods Enhance Nutritional Status, Growth and Development in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.) Larvae\u2014Can We Identify the Underlying Factors?","volume":"3","author":"Karlsen","year":"2015","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"738586","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2022.738586","article-title":"First Feed Matters: The First Diet of Larval Fish Programmes Growth, Survival, and Metabolism of Larval Ballan Wrasse (Labrus bergylta)","volume":"561","author":"Malzahn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Etayo, A., Lie, K.K., Bjelland, R.M., Hordvik, I., \u00d8verg\u00e5rd, A.-C., and S\u00e6le, \u00d8. (2023). The Thymus and T-Cell Ontogeny in Ballan Wrasse (Labrus bergylta) Is Nutritionally Modelled. Front. Immunol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2023.1166785"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1080\/07924259.2006.9652204","article-title":"When Similar Beginnings Lead to Different Ends: Constraints and Diversity in Cirripede Larval Development","volume":"49","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invertebr. Reprod. Dev."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wanninger, A. (2015). \u201cCrustacea\u201d: Cirripedia. Evolutionary Developmental Biology of Invertebrates 4, Springer Vienna.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-1853-5"},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Calvo, L.G. (2024). Effects of Different Live Feeding Regimes on the Development and Lipid Composition of Ballan Wrasse (Labrus bergylta) Larvae. [Master\u2019s Thesis, NTNU]."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"264","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.12.010","article-title":"Co-Feeding in Senegalese Sole Larvae with Inert Diet from Mouth Opening Promotes Growth at Weaning","volume":"288","author":"Engrola","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2006.09.019","article-title":"Evaluation of New Microparticulate Diets for Early Weaning of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua): Implications on Larval Performances and Tank Hygiene","volume":"263","author":"Fletcher","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lembo, G., and Mente, E. (2019). Early Life Stages and Weaning. Organic Aquaculture, Springer International Publishing.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-05603-2"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(97)00116-6","article-title":"Co-Feeding Marine Fish Larvae with Inert and Live Diets","volume":"155","author":"Rosenlund","year":"1997","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"457","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2095.2009.00682.x","article-title":"Senegalese Sole Larvae Growth and Protein Utilization Is Depressed When Co-Fed High Levels of Inert Diet and Artemia Since First Feeding: Co-Fed High Levels of Inert Diet since First Feeding","volume":"16","author":"Engrola","year":"2010","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2095.2008.00569.x","article-title":"Comparison of Dietary Phospholipids and Neutral Lipids: Effects on Gut, Liver and Pancreas Histology in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.) Larvae","volume":"15","author":"Wold","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"246","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2009.06.012","article-title":"Comparison of Dietary Phospholipids and Neutral Lipids on Skeletal Development and Fatty Acid Composition in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua)","volume":"294","author":"Olsen","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1026","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2010.02685.x","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Levels and Ratio of Phosphatidylcholine and Phosphatidylinositol on the Growth, Survival and Deformity Levels of Atlantic Cod Larvae and Early Juveniles: Dietary PC and PI on Cod Larval Performance","volume":"42","author":"Hansen","year":"2011","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2003.08.007","article-title":"A Balanced Dietary Amino Acid Profile Improves Amino Acid Retention in Post-Larval Senegalese Sole (Solea senegalensis)","volume":"233","author":"Martins","year":"2004","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S168","DOI":"10.1111\/raq.12020","article-title":"What Determines Growth Potential and Juvenile Quality of Farmed Fish Species?","volume":"5","author":"Valente","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Holt, G.J. (2011). Effects of Larval Nutrition on Development. Larval Fish Nutrition, Wiley.","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470959862"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN2003880","article-title":"Effect of Dietary Phospholipid Level and Phospholipid:Neutral Lipid Value on the Development of Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) Larvae Fed a Compound Diet","volume":"90","author":"Cahu","year":"2003","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_35","first-page":"S99","article-title":"Skeletal Anomalies in Reared European Fish Larvae and Juveniles. Part 1: Normal and Anomalous Skeletogenic Processes","volume":"5","author":"Boglione","year":"2013","journal-title":"Rev. Aquac."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"El Kertaoui, N., Lund, I., Assogba, H., Dom\u00ednguez, D., Izquierdo, M.S., Baekelandt, S., Cornet, V., Mandiki, S.N.M., Montero, D., and Kestemont, P. (2019). Key Nutritional Factors and Interactions during Larval Development of Pikeperch (Sander lucioperca). Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43491-1"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2014.05.017","article-title":"Ontogeny of Redox Regulation in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae","volume":"73","author":"Hamre","year":"2014","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"524","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2016.11.004","article-title":"Ossification of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua)\u2013Developmental Stages Revisited","volume":"468","author":"Haugen","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"740169","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2023.740169","article-title":"The Effect of Copepod Acartia tonsa During the First Days of Larval Rearing in Skeleton Ontogeny and Skeletal Deformities in Greater Amberjack (Seriola dumerili Risso, 1810)","volume":"579","author":"Loufi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_40","unstructured":"(2025, October 06). Directive 2010\/63\/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 September 2010 on the Protection of Animals Used for Scientific Purposes. Available online: https:\/\/eur-lex.europa.eu\/eli\/dir\/2010\/63\/oj\/eng."},{"key":"ref_41","unstructured":"(1999). Animal Feeding Stuffs. Determination of Moisture and Other Volatile Matter Content (Standard No. ISO 6496:1999)."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(02)00167-9","article-title":"Osteological Development and Abnormalities of the Vertebral Column and Caudal Skeleton in Larval and Juvenile Stages of Hatchery-Reared Senegal Sole (Solea senegalensis)","volume":"211","author":"Gavaia","year":"2002","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.03.036","article-title":"Assessment of \u201cDiscreet\u201d Vertebral Abnormalities, Bone Mineralization and Bone Compactness in Farmed Rainbow Trout","volume":"279","author":"Deschamps","year":"2008","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.3109\/10520297609116677","article-title":"Science and Art in Preparing Tissues Embedded in Plastic for Light Microscopy, with Special Reference to Glycol Methacrylate, Glass Knives and Simple Stains","volume":"51","author":"Bennett","year":"1976","journal-title":"Stain Technol."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.09.028","article-title":"Morphometric Evaluation of Changes in the Digestive Tract of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Due to Fish Meal Replacement with Soy Protein Concentrate","volume":"273","author":"Escaffre","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2008.08.028","article-title":"Histological Evaluation of the Elimination of Artemia Nauplii from Larval Rearing Protocols on the Digestive System Ontogeny of Shi Drum (Umbrina cirrosa L.)","volume":"286","author":"Papadakis","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aqrep.2022.101285","article-title":"Multiparametric Semi-Quantitative Scoring System for the Histological Evaluation of Marine Fish Larval and Juvenile Quality","volume":"26","author":"Pacorig","year":"2022","journal-title":"Aquac. Rep."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Vo, T.A., Galloway, T.F., Arukwe, A., Edvardsen, R.B., Hamre, K., Karlsen, \u00d8., R\u00f8nnestad, I., and Kj\u00f8rsvik, E. (2022). Effect of Diet on Molecular Relationships between Atlantic Cod Larval Muscle Growth Dynamics, Metabolism, and Antioxidant Defense System. Front. Mar. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmars.2022.814022"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"502","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2007.06.034","article-title":"Phospholipids vs. Neutral Lipids: Effects on Digestive Enzymes in Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae","volume":"272","author":"Wold","year":"2007","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2017.05.025","article-title":"Effects of Wild Zooplankton Versus Enriched Rotifers and Artemia on the Biochemical Composition of Atlantic Cod (Gadus Morhua) Larvae","volume":"479","author":"Rocha","year":"2017","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"1","article-title":"Investigations on Cod Larvae in the Coastal Waters of Northern Norway","volume":"9","author":"Wiborg","year":"1948","journal-title":"Fisk. Skr. Ser. Havundersoekelser"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"377","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00391643","article-title":"The Food of Three Species of Gadoid Larvae in the Eastern English Channel and Southern North Sea","volume":"48","author":"Last","year":"1978","journal-title":"Mar. Biol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"19","DOI":"10.3354\/meps051019","article-title":"Optimal Foraging and Density-Dependent Competition in Marine Fish Larvae","volume":"51","author":"Fortier","year":"1989","journal-title":"Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"449","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1095-8649.1992.tb02673.x","article-title":"Morphological Changes During Metamorphosis in Cod (Gadus morhua L.), with Particular Reference to the Development of the Stomach and Pyloric Caeca","volume":"41","author":"Pedersen","year":"1992","journal-title":"J. Fish Biol."},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Morrison, C.M. (1993). Histology of the Atlantic Cod, Gadus Morhua: An Atlas; Eleutheroembryo and Larva = Atlas d\u2019histologie de La Morue Franche, Gadus Morhua; \u00c9leuth\u00e9ro-Embryon et Larve; Canadian Special Publications of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, NRC Research Press."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1007\/s10695-007-9140-y","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Phospholipid Level in Cobia (Rachycentron canadum) Larvae: Growth, Survival, Plasma Lipids and Enzymes of Lipid Metabolism","volume":"34","author":"Niu","year":"2008","journal-title":"Fish Physiol Biochem"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"560","DOI":"10.1007\/s10499-025-02236-w","article-title":"Influence of Dietary Phospholipid Level and Bile Salt Supplementation on Larval Performance of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua L.)","volume":"33","author":"Marthinsen","year":"2025","journal-title":"Aquacult. Int."},{"key":"ref_58","first-page":"109","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Phospholipids on Growth of The Larval Red Sea Bream and Knife Jaw","volume":"32","author":"Kanazawa","year":"1983","journal-title":"Mem. Fac. Fish."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/0044-8486(85)90151-6","article-title":"Effects of Dietary Lipids, Fatty Acids, and Phospholipids on Growth and Survival of Prawn (Penaeus japonicus) larvae","volume":"50","author":"Kanazawa","year":"1985","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2095.2003.00225.x","article-title":"Three Different Lipid Sources in Formulated Start-Feeds for Turbot (Scophthalmus maximus L.) Larvae-Effect on Growth and Mitochondrial Alteration in Enterocytes: Lipids in Formulated Start-Feeds for Turbot Larvae","volume":"9","author":"Leifson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Aquac. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aquaculture.2015.06.012","article-title":"Influence of Dietary Phospholipid on Early Development and Performance of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar)","volume":"448","author":"Taylor","year":"2015","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102","DOI":"10.1111\/anu.12538","article-title":"Early Introduction of an Inert Diet and Unenriched Artemia Enhances Growth and Quality of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae","volume":"24","author":"Hansen","year":"2018","journal-title":"Aquacult. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(01)00699-8","article-title":"Substitution of Live Food by Formulated Diets in Marine Fish Larvae","volume":"200","author":"Cahu","year":"2001","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"634","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2011.03068.x","article-title":"Effect of Dietary Phospholipid Sources and Levels on Growth Performance, Enzymes Activity, Cholecystokinin and Lipoprotein Fractions of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) Fry","volume":"44","author":"Azarm","year":"2013","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/S0044-8486(00)00356-2","article-title":"Early Weaning of Atlantic Cod (Gadus morhua) Larvae onto a Microparticulate Diet","volume":"189","author":"Kling","year":"2000","journal-title":"Aquaculture"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"989","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2109.2009.02190.x","article-title":"Influence of Dietary Phospholipids on Early Ontogenesis of Fish","volume":"40","author":"Cahu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Aquac. Res."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/20\/2985\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T14:44:26Z","timestamp":1761057866000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/20\/2985"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]},"references-count":66,"journal-issue":{"issue":"20","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ani15202985"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani15202985","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,15]]}}}