{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,9]],"date-time":"2026-06-09T13:12:29Z","timestamp":1781010749007,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":45,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"23","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1764288000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Raillietiella orientalis is an obligate endoparasitic crustacean that is endemic to Southeast Asia and Africa and mainly inhabits the lungs of snake definitive hosts. This pentastomid has emerged as a neozoan parasite in North America, particularly in Florida, where its spread is likely linked to the introduction of nonindigenous Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus), and Australia. In Europe, R. orientalis has previously only been reported in a wild-caught chameleon in Germany. We report a case of R. orientalis infection in a two-year-old male panther chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) which presented with anorexia and respiratory signs. Radiography revealed a diffuse interstitial\u2013alveolar pulmonary pattern, and pulmonoscopy demonstrated numerous adult pentastomids within the lungs and their saccular extensions. Endoscopy-guided removal attempts were unsuccessful. Coprological examination confirmed patent infection through the presence of pentastomid eggs. Morphological assessment and 18S rRNA PCR followed by sequencing identified the parasites as R. orientalis. As antiparasitic treatment with ivermectin and fenbendazole failed and clinical disease persisted, humane euthanasia was performed. This case provides the second description of R. orientalis in a chameleon definitive host and highlights the parasite\u2019s capacity for phenotypic plasticity in host utilization. Our findings underscore the potential role of the international reptile trade in facilitating the introduction and dissemination of this invasive pentastomid in Europe.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15233433","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T11:19:51Z","timestamp":1764328791000},"page":"3433","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Patent Pulmonary Infection with the Invasive Pentastomid Raillietiella orientalis in a Panther Chameleon (Furcifer pardalis) in Belgium"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"15","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2550-7751","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tom","family":"Hellebuyck","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0040-8148","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ferran","family":"Solanes-Vilanova","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9813-5506","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bregt","family":"Decorte","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Josip","family":"Miljkovi\u0107","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8292-2791","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edwin","family":"Claerebout","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, B-9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","unstructured":"Roberts, L.S., Janovy, J., Schmidt, G.D., and Larry, S. (2009). Pentastomida: Tongue worms. Roberts\u2019 Foundations of Parasitology, McGraw-Hill. [8th ed.]."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2013.12.003","article-title":"Pentastomids of wild snakes in the Australian tropics","volume":"3","author":"Kelehear","year":"2014","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2003.2631","article-title":"Phylogenetic position of the Pentastomida and (pan)crustacean relationships","volume":"271","author":"Lavrov","year":"2004","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-4894(69)90222-7","article-title":"Biological relationships of the Pentastomida; a bibliography on the Pentastomida","volume":"24","author":"Self","year":"1969","journal-title":"Exp. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00329615","article-title":"Some observations on the life-cycle of Reighardia sternae Diesing 1864 (Pentastomida)","volume":"40","author":"Riley","year":"1972","journal-title":"Z. Parasitenkd."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1093\/jmedent\/10.3.301","article-title":"Experimental studies on the life cycle of a lizard pentastomid","volume":"10","author":"Lavoipierre","year":"1973","journal-title":"J. Med. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000057255","article-title":"Experimental life-cycle studies of Raillietiella gehyrae Bovien, 1927 and Raillietiella frenatus Ali, Riley and Self, 1981: Pentastomid parasites of geckos utilizing insects as intermediate hosts","volume":"86","author":"Ali","year":"1983","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/0169-4758(89)90055-0","article-title":"Evolution in the pentastomids","volume":"5","author":"Haugerud","year":"1989","journal-title":"Parasitol. Today"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1051\/parasite\/2003103235","article-title":"Rilleyella petauri gen. nov., sp. nov. (Pentastomida: Cephalobaenida) from the lungs and nasal sinus of Petaurus breviceps (Marsupialia: Petauridae) in Australia","volume":"10","author":"Spratt","year":"2003","journal-title":"Parasite"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"285","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jepm.2008.07.005","article-title":"An overview of pentastomiasis in reptiles and other vertebrates","volume":"17","year":"2008","journal-title":"J. Exot. Pet Med."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.14411\/fp.2016.026","article-title":"A morphological and genetic description of pentastomid infective nymphs belonging to the family Sebekidae Sambon, 1922 in fish in Australian waters","volume":"63","author":"Barton","year":"2016","journal-title":"Folia Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1670\/21-061","article-title":"Infection experiments indicate that common Florida anurans and lizards may serve as intermediate hosts for the invasive pentastome parasite, Raillietiella orientalis","volume":"56","author":"Palmisano","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Herpetol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kelehear, C., Spratt, D.M., Dubey, S., Brown, G.P., and Shine, R. (2011). Using combined morphological, allometric and molecular approaches to identify species of the genus Raillietiella (Pentastomida). PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0024936"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"29","article-title":"A systematic monograph of the recent Pentastomida, with a compilation of their hosts","volume":"87","author":"Christoffersen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Zool. Med. Leiden"},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"Baker, J.R., and Muller, R. (1986). The biology of pentastomids. Advances in Parasitology, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S89","DOI":"10.1017\/S0031182000084651","article-title":"Pentastomids and the tetrapod lung","volume":"119","author":"Riley","year":"1999","journal-title":"Parasitology"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1071\/ZO9850039","article-title":"Pentastomids (Arthropoda) parasitic in Australian reptiles and mammals","volume":"33","author":"Riley","year":"1985","journal-title":"Aust. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1071\/ZO20017","article-title":"First report of nymphs of the introduced pentastomid, Linguatula serrata, in red-necked wallabies (Notamacropus rufogriseus) in Australia","volume":"67","author":"Barton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Aust. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2022.07.004","article-title":"Are feral goats intermediate hosts for Linguatula (Pentastomida) in Australia?","volume":"18","author":"Barton","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1553","DOI":"10.1007\/s00436-020-06670-y","article-title":"Verification of rabbits as intermediate hosts for Linguatula serrata (Pentastomida) in Australia","volume":"119","author":"Barton","year":"2020","journal-title":"Parasitol. Res."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.2307\/3282566","article-title":"Histopathology of nymphal pentastomid infections (Sebekia mississippiensis) in paratenic hosts","volume":"77","author":"Boyce","year":"1991","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tappe, D., and B\u00fcttner, D.W. (2009). Diagnosis of human visceral pentastomiasis. PLoS Negl. Trop. Dis., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pntd.0000320"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"830","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.3557","article-title":"Parasite spillover: Indirect effects of invasive Burmese pythons","volume":"8","author":"Miller","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00009814","article-title":"A review of the taxonomy and systematics of the pentastomid genus Raillietiella Sambon, 1910 with a description of a new species","volume":"7","author":"Ali","year":"1985","journal-title":"Syst. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_25","first-page":"73","article-title":"Spillover of pentastome parasites from invasive Burmese pythons (Python bivittatus) to pygmy rattlesnakes (Sistrurus miliarius), extending parasite range in Florida, USA","volume":"50","author":"Farrell","year":"2019","journal-title":"Herpetol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Walden, H.D.S., Iredale, M.E., Childress, A., Wellehan, J.F.X., and Ossiboff, R.J. (2020). Case report: Invasive pentastomes, Raillietiella orientalis (Sambon, 1922), in a free-ranging banded water snake (Nerodia fasciata) in North central Florida, USA. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00467"},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"Divers, S.J., and Stahl, S.J. (2018). Parasitology (including hemoparasites). Mader\u2019s Reptile and Amphibian Medicine and Surgery, Elsevier Health Sciences. [3rd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e03153","DOI":"10.1002\/ecs2.3153","article-title":"Highly competent native snake hosts extend the range of an introduced parasite beyond its invasive Burmese python host","volume":"11","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ecosphere"},{"key":"ref_29","first-page":"389","article-title":"Crotalus adamanteus: Endoparasite","volume":"50","author":"Metcalf","year":"2019","journal-title":"Herpetol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_30","unstructured":"Fonseca, M. (2021). Invasive Parasites: A Survey of Endoparasites in Salvator merianae Populations in Florida. [Ph.D. Thesis, Florida Southern College]."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1645\/24-46","article-title":"Pentastomes in Australian reptiles and amphibians: A review of the history and a checklist of records","volume":"110","author":"Barton","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goetz, S.M., Steen, D.A., Miller, M.A., Guyer, C., Kottwitz, J., Roberts, J.F., Blankenship, E., Pearson, P.R., Warner, D.A., and Reed, R.N. (2021). Argentine black and white tegu (Salvator merianae) can survive the winter under semi-natural conditions well beyond their current invasive range. PLoS ONE, 16.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0245877"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"255","DOI":"10.17161\/randa.v28i2.15238","article-title":"First record of an Asian tongueworm, Raillietiella orientalis (Pentastomida: Raillietiellidae), parasitizing a tokay gecko (Gekko gecko): A novel interaction between two non-native species in Florida","volume":"28","author":"Fieldsend","year":"2021","journal-title":"Reptiles Amphib."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1002\/zoos.200900018","article-title":"An annotated catalogue of the tongue worms (Pentastomida) held in the Museum f\u00fcr Naturkunde Berlin","volume":"86","author":"Dunlop","year":"2010","journal-title":"Zoosyst. Evol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101045","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2025.101045","article-title":"First identification of a patent pentastomid pulmonary (Raillietiella orientalis) infection in a captive Meller\u2019s chameleon (Trioceros melleri) in Germany","volume":"26","author":"Ebmer","year":"2025","journal-title":"Int. J. Parasitol. Parasites Wildl."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"743","DOI":"10.1638\/2015-0161.1","article-title":"Plasma biochemistry and hematology reference values of captive panther chameleons (Furcifer pardalis) with special emphasis on seasonality and gender differences","volume":"47","author":"Laube","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Zoo Wildl. Med."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"460","DOI":"10.1354\/vp.07-VP-0246-R-BC","article-title":"Massive visceral pentastomiasis caused by Porocephalus crotali in a dog","volume":"46","author":"Brookins","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vet. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"673","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00925489","article-title":"Experimental life-cycle studies of Raillietiella Sambon, 1910 (Pentastomida: Cephalobaenida): The fourth-stage larva is infective for the definitive host","volume":"72","author":"Bosch","year":"1986","journal-title":"Z. Parasitenkd."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westfall, A.K., Miller, M.A., Murray, C.M., Falk, B.G., Guyer, C., and Romagosa, C.M. (2019). Host-specific phenotypic variation of a parasite co-introduced with invasive Burmese pythons. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0209252"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1638\/1042-7260(2000)031[0091:PIBSML]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Pentastomiasis in Bosc\u2019s monitor lizards (Varanus exanthematicus) caused by an undescribed Sambonius species","volume":"31","author":"Flach","year":"2000","journal-title":"J. Zoo Wildl. Med."},{"key":"ref_41","first-page":"5","article-title":"Ivermectin for the treatment of pentastomids in the Standing\u2019s day gecko (Phelsuma standingi)","volume":"7","author":"Wright","year":"1997","journal-title":"Bull. Assoc. Reptil. Amphib. Vet."},{"key":"ref_42","first-page":"363","article-title":"Tongue worm (Pentastomida) infection in ball pythons (Python regius)\u2014A case report","volume":"62","author":"Dudek","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ann. Parasitol."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102617","DOI":"10.1016\/j.parint.2022.102617","article-title":"Tongue worm (subclass: Pentastomida) infection and treatment in two domesticated reptiles\u2014A case report","volume":"91","author":"Takaki","year":"2022","journal-title":"Parasitol. Int."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1016\/j.zoolgart.2016.04.001","article-title":"Experience in the ivermectin treatment of internal parasites in zoo and captive wild animals: A review","volume":"85","year":"2016","journal-title":"Zool. Gart."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1055\/s-0038-1622708","article-title":"Pentastomidenbefall bei Abgottschlangen (Boa constrictor)\u2014Diagnostik und endoskopische Parasitenentfernung","volume":"36","author":"Foldenauer","year":"2008","journal-title":"Tier\u00e4rztl. Prax. Ausg. K Kleintiere Heimtiere"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/23\/3433\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]],"date-time":"2025-11-28T11:39:13Z","timestamp":1764329953000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/15\/23\/3433"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]]},"references-count":45,"journal-issue":{"issue":"23","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,12]]}},"alternative-id":["ani15233433"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani15233433","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,11,28]]}}}