{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T20:50:27Z","timestamp":1768510227756,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":118,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003074","name":"Agencia Nacional de Promoci\u00f3n de la Investigaci\u00f3n, el Desarrollo Tecnol\u00f3gico y la Innovaci\u00f3n","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PICT 3785"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PICT 3785"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003074","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002923","name":"Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PIP 3164"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PIP 3164"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002923","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007070","name":"Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["EXA 1111"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["EXA 1111"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007070","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The endocrine stress response is a valuable tool for evaluating how organisms cope with environmental challenges. However, selecting an appropriate matrix for measuring glucocorticoids (GCs) requires careful consideration of sample quality and accessibility. This study reveals that blood sampling affects plasma cortisol levels in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum, with the effect being reversed shortly thereafter. To facilitate a non-invasive approach, an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (EIA) that had previously been validated for measuring plasma cortisol in C. talarum was evaluated to measure adrenocortical activity by analyzing fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (FGCs). Using this assay, we monitored the stress response during wild capture, transport to captivity, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) stimulation, and immobilization. This showed that FGC levels accurately reflect adrenal activation in these contexts. We also documented a relationship between reproductive seasonality and FGCs. Finally, we provide evidence for a relationship between adrenal activity and behavior. Our results suggest that when considering plasma GCs for the assessment of acute stress, it is crucial to understand the magnitude and timing of the effects of blood sampling on the stress state of organisms. The validation of FGC measurement in C. talarum provides a new option for advancing ecophysiological studies in both the wild and captivity.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16020234","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T10:13:51Z","timestamp":1768299231000},"page":"234","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Non-Invasive Assessment of Adrenal Activity in the Subterranean Rodent Ctenomys talarum in Field and Laboratory Conditions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8454-7665","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Roxana","family":"Zenuto","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo \u201cEcolog\u00eda Fisiol\u00f3gica y del Comportamiento\u201d, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Valentina","family":"Brachetta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo \u201cEcolog\u00eda Fisiol\u00f3gica y del Comportamiento\u201d, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Mar\u00eda Celina","family":"Carrizo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo \u201cEcolog\u00eda Fisiol\u00f3gica y del Comportamiento\u201d, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1890-8183","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mar\u00eda Sol","family":"Fanjul","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo \u201cEcolog\u00eda Fisiol\u00f3gica y del Comportamiento\u201d, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Cristian Eric","family":"Schleich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Grupo \u201cEcolog\u00eda Fisiol\u00f3gica y del Comportamiento\u201d, Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cient\u00edficas y T\u00e9cnicas (CONICET), Mar del Plata 7600, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.2174\/187152706778559336","article-title":"The hypothalamic\u2013pituitary\u2013adrenal axis: What can it tell us about stressors?","volume":"5","author":"Armario","year":"2006","journal-title":"CNS Neurol. Disord.\u2014Drug Targets"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"cou023","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/cou023","article-title":"Measures of physiological stress: A transparent or opaque window into the status, management and conservation of species?","volume":"2","author":"Dantzer","year":"2014","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"191","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/38.1.191","article-title":"Ecological bases of hormone-behavior interactions: The \u201cEmergency Life History Stage\u201d","volume":"38","author":"Wingfield","year":"1998","journal-title":"Am. Zool."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"462","DOI":"10.1016\/S0169-5347(02)02578-8","article-title":"The physiology-life history nexus","volume":"17","author":"Ricklefs","year":"2002","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"225","DOI":"10.1644\/BHE-003.1","article-title":"Stress in free-ranging mammals: Integrating physiology, ecology, and natural history","volume":"86","author":"Reeder","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"248","DOI":"10.1644\/BHE-004.1","article-title":"The concept of allostasis: Coping with a capricious environment","volume":"86","author":"Wingfield","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7366","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.131091498","article-title":"Corticosterone levels predict survival probabilities of Gal\u00e1pagos marine iguanas during El Ni\u00f1o events","volume":"98","author":"Romero","year":"2001","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"375","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2008.12.009","article-title":"The reactive scope model: A new model integrating homeostasis, allostasis, and stress","volume":"55","author":"Romero","year":"2009","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_9","first-page":"55","article-title":"How do glucocorticoids influence stress responses? integrating permissive, suppressive, stimulatory, and preparative actions","volume":"21","author":"Sapolsky","year":"2000","journal-title":"Endocr. Rev."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"193","DOI":"10.1007\/s12026-014-8517-0","article-title":"Effects of stress on immune function: The good, the bad, and the beautiful","volume":"58","author":"Dhabhar","year":"2014","journal-title":"Imm. Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1086\/523306","article-title":"Stress and demographic decline: A potential effect mediated by impairment of reproduction and immune function in cyclic vole populations","volume":"81","author":"Charbonnel","year":"2008","journal-title":"Physiol. Biochem. Zool."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"331","DOI":"10.7120\/09627286.21.3.331","article-title":"Monitoring stress hormone metabolites as a useful, non-invasive tool for welfare assessment in farm animals","volume":"21","author":"Palme","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anim. Welf."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Karaer, M.C., \u010cebulj-Kadunc, N., and Snoj, T. (2023). Stress in wildlife: Comparison of the stress response among domestic, captive, and free-ranging animals. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1167016"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2752","article-title":"Neophobia, but not perch hopping, is sensitive to long-term chronic stress intensity","volume":"339","author":"Beattie","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"925","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(99)00026-3","article-title":"Coping styles in animals: Current status in behavior and stress-physiology","volume":"23","author":"Koolhaas","year":"1999","journal-title":"Neurosci. Biobehav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"236","DOI":"10.1644\/BHE-001.1","article-title":"Equipped for life: The adaptive role of the stress axis in male mammals","volume":"86","author":"Boonstra","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869","DOI":"10.1007\/s00442-011-1943-y","article-title":"Measuring stress in wildlife: Techniques for quantifying glucocorticoids","volume":"166","author":"Sheriff","year":"2011","journal-title":"Oecologia"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"12","DOI":"10.1086\/316721","article-title":"Fecal glucocorticoids: A noninvasive method of measuring adrenal activity in wild and captive rodents","volume":"73","author":"Harper","year":"2000","journal-title":"Physiol. Biochem. Zool."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1343.007","article-title":"Measuring fecal steroids\u2014Guidelines for practical application","volume":"1046","author":"Palme","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2018.11.021","article-title":"Non-invasive measurement of glucocorticoids: Advances and problems","volume":"199","author":"Palme","year":"2019","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1164","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13435","article-title":"The welfare and ethics of research involving wild animals: A primer","volume":"11","author":"Soulsbury","year":"2020","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2009.02.010","article-title":"Lab and field experiments: Are they the same animal?","volume":"56","author":"Calisi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"621","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1439-0442.1999.00256.x","article-title":"Measurement of glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in faeces of domestic livestock","volume":"46","author":"Messmann","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1327.021","article-title":"Stress hormones in mammals and birds: Comparative aspects regarding metabolism, excretion and noninvasive measurement in fecal samples","volume":"1040","author":"Palme","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"614","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2009.12.017","article-title":"Assessing stress in animal populations: Do fecal and plasma glucocorticoids tell the same story?","volume":"166","author":"Sheriff","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"54","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1343.006","article-title":"Measuring fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in mammals and birds: The importance of validation","volume":"1046","author":"Touma","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104720","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2020.104720","article-title":"The stress of being alone: Removal from the colony, but not social subordination, increases cortisol in eusocial naked mole-rats","volume":"121","author":"Edwards","year":"2020","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"189","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2004.07.002","article-title":"Use of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite measures in conservation biology research: Considerations for application and interpretation","volume":"138","author":"Millspaugh","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lafferty, D.J.R., Zimova, M., Clontz, L., Hackl\u00e4nder, K., and Mills, L.S. (2019). Noninvasive measures of physiological stress are confounded by exposure. Sci. Rep., 9.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-55715-5"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"816","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.835","article-title":"Collection of blood from wild-caught mice (Peromyscus) via submandibular venipuncture","volume":"41","author":"Berl","year":"2017","journal-title":"Wild. Soc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"341","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-020-01269-2","article-title":"Puncture versus capture: Which stresses animals the most?","volume":"190","author":"Bonnet","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1080\/002229399300434","article-title":"Sexual size dimorphism, relative testes size and mating system in two populations of Ctenomys talarum (Rodentia: Octodontidae)","volume":"33","author":"Zenuto","year":"1999","journal-title":"J. Nat. Hist."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"204","DOI":"10.2307\/1381691","article-title":"Spatial distribution and attributes of a population of Ctenomys talarum (Rodentia: Octodontidae)","volume":"70","author":"Busch","year":"1989","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"163","article-title":"Burrow structure in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"57","author":"Antinuchi","year":"1992","journal-title":"Mamm. Biol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lacey, E.A., Patton, J.L., and Cameron, G.N. (2000). Population ecology of subterranean rodents. Life Underground: The Biology of Subterranean Rodents, University of Chicago Press.","DOI":"10.1071\/AM01075_BR"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"550","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2010.11.012","article-title":"Cortisol and corticosterone exhibit different seasonal variation and responses to acute stress and captivity in tuco-tucos (Ctenomys talarum)","volume":"170","author":"Vera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7998.2012.00967.x","article-title":"Seasonal variations in plasma cortisol, testosterone, progesterone and leukocyte profiles in a wild population of tuco-tucos","volume":"289","author":"Vera","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.1711","article-title":"Differential responses of cortisol and corticosterone to adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in a subterranean rodent (Ctenomys talarum)","volume":"317","author":"Vera","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2018.05.019","article-title":"Different regulation of cortisol and corticosterone in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum: Responses to dexamethasone, angiotensin II, potassium, and diet","volume":"273","author":"Vera","year":"2019","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1007\/s00359-019-01384-8","article-title":"Differential antipredatory responses in the tuco-tuco (Ctenomys talarum) in relation to endogenous and exogenous changes in glucocorticoids","volume":"206","author":"Brachetta","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2675","article-title":"Varying intensity of simulated infection partially affects the magnitude of the acute-phase immune response in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"339","author":"Carrizo","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104945","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2023.104945","article-title":"Individual differences in behaviour are related to metabolism, stress response, testosterone, and immunity in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"212","author":"Fanjul","year":"2023","journal-title":"Behav. Proc."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freitas, T.R.O., Gon\u00e7alves, G.L., and Maestri, R. (2021). Ecological Physiology and Behavior in the Genus Ctenomys. Tuco-Tucos. An Evolutionary Approach to the Diversity of a Neotropical Subterranean Rodent, Springer Nature.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-61679-3"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-012-0656-9","article-title":"Interpreting indices of physiological stress in free-living vertebrates: A review","volume":"182","author":"Johnstone","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2008.06.030","article-title":"Decreased glucose tolerance but normal blood glucose levels in the field in the caviomorph rodent Ctenomys talarum: The role of stress and physical activity","volume":"151","author":"Vera","year":"2008","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2014.11.023","article-title":"Immune challenge but not dietary restriction affects spatial learning in the wild subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"139","author":"Schleich","year":"2015","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"760","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2435.2008.01467.x","article-title":"The use of leukocyte profiles to measure stress in vertebrates: A review for ecologists","volume":"22","author":"Davis","year":"2008","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1556","DOI":"10.1111\/2041-210X.13020","article-title":"The use of glucocorticoid hormones or leucocyte profiles to measure stress in vertebrates: What\u2019s the difference?","volume":"9","author":"Davis","year":"2018","journal-title":"Methods Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/laban.529","article-title":"Evaluation of the neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio as a measure of distress in rats","volume":"43","author":"Swan","year":"2014","journal-title":"Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"974","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2007.03.003","article-title":"Nutritional responses to different diet quality in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum (tuco-tucos)","volume":"147","author":"Martino","year":"2007","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"298","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2009.05.013","article-title":"Effect of diet quality and soil hardness on basal metabolic rate in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"154","author":"Perissinotti","year":"2009","journal-title":"Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-078X2000000100005","article-title":"Ritmos de actividad locomotora y uso de las cuevas en condiciones seminaturales en Ctenomys talarum (Rodentia, Octodontidae)","volume":"73","author":"Luna","year":"2000","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Hist Nat."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1183","DOI":"10.1644\/05-MAMM-A-386R1.1","article-title":"Home-Range and Activity Patterns of the South American Subterranean Rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"87","author":"Cutrera","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1113","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12217","article-title":"Ectoparasitism and stress hormones: Strategy of host exploitation, common host\u2013parasite history and energetics matter","volume":"83","author":"Khokhlova","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-6480(02)00620-2","article-title":"Effects of sex and time of day on metabolism and excretion of corticosterone in urine and feces of mice","volume":"130","author":"Touma","year":"2003","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ortiz-Ross, X., Taha, H.B., Press, E., Rhone, S., and Blumstein, D.T. (2024). Validating an immunoassay to measure fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in yellow-bellied marmots. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. A, 298.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cbpa.2024.111738"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Navarro-Castilla, \u00c1., Garrido, M., Hawlena, H., and Barja, I. (2021). Non-invasive monitoring of adrenocortical activity in three sympatric desert gerbil species. Animals, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani11010075"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2010.03.024","article-title":"Fecal cortisol metabolite levels in free-ranging North American red squirrels: Assay validation and the effects of reproductive condition","volume":"167","author":"Dantzer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eleftheriou, A., Palme, R., and Boonstra, R. (2020). Assessment of the stress response in North American deermice: Laboratory and field validation of two enzyme immunoassays for fecal corticosterone metabolites. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10071120"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"183","DOI":"10.1086\/664592","article-title":"Non-invasive monitoring of fecal cortisol metabolites in the Eastern chipmunk (Tamias striatus): Validation and comparison of two enzyme immunoassays","volume":"85","author":"Montiglio","year":"2012","journal-title":"Physiol. Biochem. Zool."},{"key":"ref_61","unstructured":"Diamandis, E.P., and Christopoulos, T.K. (1996). Data interpretation and quality control. Immunoassay, Academic Press."},{"key":"ref_62","first-page":"238","article-title":"Steroid extraction: Get the best out of fecal samples","volume":"100","author":"Palme","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Aust."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e8490","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj.8490","article-title":"Personality underground: Evidence of behavioral types in the solitary subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"8","author":"Fanjul","year":"2020","journal-title":"PeerJ"},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-185X.2007.00010.x","article-title":"Integrating animal temperament within ecology and evolution","volume":"82","author":"Reader","year":"2007","journal-title":"Biol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piquet, J.C., L\u00f3pez-Darias, M., van der Marel, A., Nogales, M., and Waterman, J. (2018). Unraveling behavioral and pace-of-life syndromes in a reduced parasite and predation pressure context: Personality and survival of the Barbary ground squirrel. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 72.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-018-2549-8"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Agnani, P., and Careau, V. (2023). The fast and the curious III: Speed, endurance, activity, and exploration in mice. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 77.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-023-03302-0"},{"key":"ref_67","unstructured":"R Core Team (2021). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing."},{"key":"ref_68","unstructured":"Pinheiro, J., Bates, D., DebRoy, S., Sarkar, D., and R Core Team (2025, July 20). nlme: Linear and Nonlinear Mixed Effects Models. Available online: https:\/\/CRAN.R-project.org\/package=nlme."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pinheiro, J.C., and Bates, D.M. (2000). Mixed-Effects Models in Sand S-PLUS, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4419-0318-1"},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1558-5646.1989.tb04220.x","article-title":"Analyzing tables of statistical tests","volume":"43","author":"Rice","year":"1989","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"428","DOI":"10.1002\/wsb.385","article-title":"Saphenous venipuncture for field collection of blood from least chipmunks","volume":"38","author":"Flaherty","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wild. Soc. Bull."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"249","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tree.2004.03.008","article-title":"Physiological stress in ecology: Lessons from biomedical research","volume":"19","author":"Romero","year":"2004","journal-title":"Trends Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"136","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2013.02.036","article-title":"Habitat type influences endocrine stress response in the degu (Octodon degus)","volume":"186","author":"Bauer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1928","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyz134","article-title":"Physiological and behavioral responses to anthropogenic stressors in a human-tolerant mammal","volume":"100","author":"Hammond","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"28","DOI":"10.1006\/hbeh.1998.1493","article-title":"The behavioral endocrinology of domestication: A comparison between the domestic guinea pig (Cavia aperea f. porcellus) and its wild ancestor, the cavy (Cavia aperea)","volume":"35","author":"Sachser","year":"1999","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"591","DOI":"10.1093\/czoolo\/60.5.591","article-title":"Validation of a radioimmunoassay-based fecal corticosteroid assay for Richardson\u2019s ground squirrels Urocitellus richardsonii and behavioural correlates of stress","volume":"60","author":"Hare","year":"2014","journal-title":"Curr. Zool."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"114385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2023.114385","article-title":"Physiological and behavioural adjustment of a wild rodent to laboratory conditions","volume":"273","author":"Carrilho","year":"2023","journal-title":"Physiol. Behav."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"498","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.621","article-title":"Contrasting fecal corticosterone metabolite levels in captive and free-living colonial tuco-tucos (Ctenomys sociabilis)","volume":"313","author":"Woodruff","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2013.06.014","article-title":"A consensus endocrine profile for chronically stressed wild animals does not exist","volume":"191","author":"Dickens","year":"2013","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2459","article-title":"Common myths of glucocorticoid function in ecology and conservation","volume":"337","author":"Romero","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"coz093","DOI":"10.1093\/conphys\/coz093","article-title":"Chronic captivity stress in wild animals is highly species-specific","volume":"7","author":"Fischer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Conserv. Physiol."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"67","DOI":"10.1016\/S0739-7240(02)00146-7","article-title":"Hormones as indicators of stress","volume":"23","author":"Palme","year":"2002","journal-title":"Dom. Anim. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2014.12.008","article-title":"The distorting effect of varying diets on fecal glucocorticoid measurements as indicators of stress: A cautionary demonstration using laboratory mice","volume":"211","author":"Kalliokoski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"370","DOI":"10.1086\/691337","article-title":"Assessing stress in arctic lemmings: Fecal metabolite levels reflect plasma free corticosterone levels","volume":"90","author":"Fauteux","year":"2017","journal-title":"Physiol. Biochem. Zool."},{"key":"ref_85","first-page":"496","article-title":"Validation of a radioimmunoassay for measuring fecal cortisol metabolites in the hystricomorph rodent, Octodon degus","volume":"311","author":"Gonzalez","year":"2009","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"39","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2016.10.015","article-title":"Excretion and measurement of corticosterone and testosterone metabolites in bank voles (Myodes glareolus)","volume":"243","author":"Sipari","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"372","DOI":"10.1258\/002367707781282730","article-title":"Non-invasive measurement of adrenocortical activity in male and female rats","volume":"41","author":"Lepschy","year":"2007","journal-title":"Lab. Anim."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2440","article-title":"Relationship between exploratory activity and adrenocortical activity in the black rat (Rattus rattus)","volume":"335","author":"Chomik","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"919","DOI":"10.1007\/s00360-010-0467-9","article-title":"Sex differences in the excretion of fecal glucocorticoid metabolites in the Syrian hamster","volume":"180","author":"Chelini","year":"2010","journal-title":"J. Comp. Physiol. B"},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105152","DOI":"10.1016\/j.yhbeh.2022.105152","article-title":"Sex, not social behavior, predicts fecal glucocorticoid metabolite concentrations in a facultatively social rodent, the highland tuco-tuco (Ctenomys opimus)","volume":"141","author":"Irian","year":"2022","journal-title":"Horm. Behav."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1111\/1365-2656.12307","article-title":"Maternal effects and population regulation: Maternal density-induced reproduction suppression impairs offspring capacity in response to immediate environment in root voles Microtus oeconomus","volume":"84","author":"Bian","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Anim. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1002\/jez.2018","article-title":"Postnatal development of the degu (Octodon degus) endocrine stress response is affected by maternal care","volume":"325","author":"Bauer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Exp. Zool. A"},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-007-0436-9","article-title":"Ecological and hormonal correlates of antipredator behavior in adult Belding\u2019s ground squirrels (Spermophilus beldingi)","volume":"62","author":"Mateo","year":"2007","journal-title":"Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"757","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2041-210X.2012.00203.x","article-title":"On the use of non-invasive hormone research in uncontrolled, natural environments: The problem with sex, diet, metabolic rate and the individual","volume":"3","author":"Goymann","year":"2012","journal-title":"Methods Ecol Evol."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1163\/157075612X642914","article-title":"Non-invasive monitoring of adrenocortical activity in European badgers (Meles meles) and effects of sample collection and storage on faecal cortisol metabolite concentrations","volume":"62","author":"Barja","year":"2012","journal-title":"An. Biol."},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20","DOI":"10.1007\/s00114-022-01792-y","article-title":"Temporal stability of fecal cortisol metabolites in mountain-dwelling ungulates","volume":"109","author":"Donini","year":"2022","journal-title":"Sci. Nat."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"25","DOI":"10.7120\/09627286.22.1.025","article-title":"Measuring faecal glucocorticoid metabolites as a non-invasive tool for monitoring adrenocortical activity in South American camelids","volume":"22","author":"Arias","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anim. Welf."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1343.004","article-title":"Measurement of corticosterone metabolites in birds\u2019 droppings: An analytical approach","volume":"1046","author":"Rettenbacher","year":"2005","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_99","first-page":"64","article-title":"Monitoring the adrenocortical response to disturbances in sheep by measuring glucocorticoid metabolites in the faeces","volume":"95","author":"Lexen","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Aust."},{"key":"ref_100","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/S0016-6480(02)00064-3","article-title":"Seasonal changes in plasma glucocorticoid concentrations in free living vertebrates","volume":"128","author":"Romero","year":"2002","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"165","DOI":"10.4067\/S0716-078X2002000100016","article-title":"Comportamiento social y reproductivo del roedor subterr\u00e1neo Ctenomys talarum en condiciones de semicautiverio","volume":"75","author":"Zenuto","year":"2002","journal-title":"Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat."},{"key":"ref_102","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.1086\/344739","article-title":"Bioenergetics of reproduction and strategy of pup development in the subterranean rodent Ctenomys talarum","volume":"75","author":"Zenuto","year":"2002","journal-title":"Physiol. Biochem. Zool."},{"key":"ref_103","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2017.01.010","article-title":"Expanding the actions of cortisol and corticosterone in wild vertebrates: A necessary step to overcome the emerging challenges","volume":"246","author":"Vera","year":"2017","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_104","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyw095","article-title":"Measurement of fecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels in Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurus vulgaris): Effects of captivity, sex, reproductive condition, and season","volume":"97","author":"Dantzer","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mammal."},{"key":"ref_105","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"260","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ygcen.2003.12.020","article-title":"Changes in baseline and stress-induced glucocorticoid levels during the active period in free-ranging male and female little brown myotis, Myotis lucifugus (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae)","volume":"136","author":"Reeder","year":"2004","journal-title":"Gen. Comp. Endocrinol."},{"key":"ref_106","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Westrick, S.E., van Kesteren, F., Palme, R., Lane, J.E., Bputin, S., McAdam, A.G., and Dantzer, B. (2019). Stress activity is not predictive of coping style in North American red squirrels. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 73.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-019-2728-2"},{"key":"ref_107","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1385","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2013.03.030","article-title":"Testing for the presence of coping styles in a wild mammal","volume":"85","author":"Ferrari","year":"2013","journal-title":"An. Behav."},{"key":"ref_108","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1101","DOI":"10.1111\/eth.12283","article-title":"Shyness-boldness, but not exploration, predicts glucocorticoid stress response in Richardson\u2019s ground squirrels (Urocitellus richardsonii)","volume":"120","author":"Clary","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ethology"},{"key":"ref_109","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7697","DOI":"10.1002\/ece3.4059","article-title":"Associations between glucocorticoids and sociality across a continuum of vertebrate social behavior","volume":"8","author":"Raulo","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ecol. Evol."},{"key":"ref_110","first-page":"63","article-title":"The race goes to the swift: Fitness consequences of variation in sprint performance in juvenile lizards","volume":"6","author":"Miles","year":"2004","journal-title":"Evol. Ecol. Res."},{"key":"ref_111","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sevenello, M., Luna, P., De La Rosa-Perea, D., and Guevara-Fiore, P. (2023). Direct and correlated responses to artificial selection on foraging in Drosophila. Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol., 77.","DOI":"10.1007\/s00265-023-03363-1"},{"key":"ref_112","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1080","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1365-2435.2006.01195.x","article-title":"Does Survival Depend on How Fast You Can Run or How Fast You Do Run?","volume":"20","author":"Husak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Funct. Ecol."},{"key":"ref_113","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1093\/icb\/icaa070","article-title":"Modeling escape success in terrestrial predator\u2013prey interactions","volume":"60","author":"Wilson","year":"2020","journal-title":"Integr. Comp. Biol."},{"key":"ref_114","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2122","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0014-3820.2006.tb01849.x","article-title":"Faster lizards sire more offspring: Sexual selection on whole-animal performance","volume":"60","author":"Husak","year":"2006","journal-title":"Evolution"},{"key":"ref_115","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1643\/0045-8511(2006)6[216:LPASSI]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Locomotor performance and sexual selection: Individual variation in sprint speed of collared lizards (Crotaphytus collaris)","volume":"2","author":"Peterson","year":"2006","journal-title":"Copeia"},{"key":"ref_116","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"eabc9699","DOI":"10.1126\/science.abc9699","article-title":"Social evolution in mammals","volume":"373","year":"2021","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_117","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Olivier, C.A., Schradin, C., and Makuya, L. (2022). Global change and conservation of solitary mammals. Front. Ecol. Evol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fevo.2022.906446"},{"key":"ref_118","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1093\/jmammal\/gyw078","article-title":"The Animal Care and Use Committee of the American Society of Mammalogists Guidelines of the American Society of Mammalogists for the use of wild mammals in research and education","volume":"97","author":"Sikes","year":"2016","journal-title":"J. Mammal."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/2\/234\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,15]],"date-time":"2026-01-15T05:48:15Z","timestamp":1768456095000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/2\/234"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"references-count":118,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16020234"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16020234","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]}}}