{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,11]],"date-time":"2026-10-11T13:39:23Z","timestamp":1791725963524,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":144,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1768262400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100005669","name":"Para\u00edba State Research Support Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["18\/2022\u2014SEETEC-FAPESq\/PB"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["18\/2022\u2014SEETEC-FAPESq\/PB"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100005669","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"name":"Support Program for Centers of Excellence in the State of Para\u00edba","award":["033\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["033\/2023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The synchronization between nitrogen sources and carbohydrate fractions represents a critical factor for optimizing microbial protein synthesis and overall ruminant performance. This systematic review, conducted according to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, comprehensively evaluated the interactions between different nitrogen sources (true protein, urea, controlled-release urea, and bypass amino acids) and carbohydrate fractions (rapidly degrading soluble, slowly degrading soluble, fibrous, non-fibrous, and Van Soest fractions) in ruminant nutrition. A comprehensive search across PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, and Scopus databases identified 1855 records, of which 164 studies met the eligibility criteria for qualitative synthesis and 89 for quantitative meta-analysis. The review reveals that synchronization effectiveness varies significantly depending on the nitrogen source\u2013carbohydrate combination, with controlled-release urea showing superior synchrony with slowly degrading carbohydrates, while conventional urea performs better with rapidly degrading sources. Meta-analytical results indicate that optimal nitrogen\u2013carbohydrate synchronization can improve microbial protein synthesis by 18\u201334%, reduce urinary nitrogen excretion by 12\u201328%, and enhance feed efficiency by 8\u201315%. These findings provide evidence-based recommendations for precision nutrition strategies in ruminant production systems.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16020239","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]],"date-time":"2026-01-13T15:52:57Z","timestamp":1768319577000},"page":"239","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":13,"title":["Nitrogen Source\u2013Carbohydrate Synchronization in Ruminant Nutrition: A Systematic Review"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8815-3946","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leilson Rocha","family":"Bezerra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9005-5272","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Juliana Paula Felipe de","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Sergipe, Nossa Senhora da Gloria 49680000, Sergipe, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9632-1268","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ant\u00f4nio Fernando de Melo","family":"Vaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4885-2945","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Kevily Henrique de Oliveira Soares de","family":"Lucena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9655-7265","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Lucas de Souza","family":"Barros","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3098-566X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yuri Martins de Andrade","family":"Fortunato","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4220-4071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Severino","family":"Gonzaga Neto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Para\u00edba, Areia 60356000, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2003-5203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elzania Sales","family":"Pereira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Ceara, Fortaleza 60356000, Ceara, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5887-4753","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ronaldo Lopes","family":"Oliveira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador 40170110, Bahia, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9683-4565","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9 Morais","family":"Pereira Filho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Animal Science, Federal University of Campina Grande, Patos 58708110, Para\u00edba, Brazil"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,13]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, J., Zheng, N., Shen, W., Zhao, S., and Wang, J. 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