{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,16]],"date-time":"2026-07-16T10:53:44Z","timestamp":1784199224312,"version":"3.55.0"},"reference-count":207,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]],"date-time":"2026-01-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1769040000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Members of the microsporidial genus Encephalitozoon have the capacity to infect both mammals and birds, and E. cuniculi is most commonly found in rabbits. With a seroprevalence ranging up to 85%, E. cuniculi can be a problem in pet rabbits as well as in food production and laboratory animal science. While most infections are likely subclinical, there are three main clinical presentations: neurological, renal, and ocular. Typical clinical signs including vestibular disease and phacoclastic uveitis may develop with initial or relapsing infection, while renal infection is usually progressive and associated with non-specific clinical signs. High-sensitivity\/specificity ante mortem diagnostic options are lacking, and serological testing most often provides adjunct rather than definitive information such that physical examination and other diagnostics are used more so for ruling out other differentials and comorbidities, rather than confirming infection. In the veterinary community, treatment regimens are variable given the lack of thorough studies and a consensus. The aim of this document is to present the available literature to give a concise review of this organism and its infection of rabbits as well as to propose guidelines and protocols for diagnostics and treatment regimens. In addition, the current challenges and recommendations for further studies are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16020346","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,23]],"date-time":"2026-01-23T14:58:40Z","timestamp":1769180320000},"page":"346","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Encephalitozoonosis in Pet Rabbits: Epidemiology, Pathogenesis, Immunology and Consensus on Clinical Management"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5005-1143","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emma","family":"Keeble","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"The Royal (Dick) School for Veterinary Studies, The Roslin Institute, The University of Edinburgh, Roslin EH25 9RG, UK"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Frank","family":"K\u03cbnzel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Clinic for Small Animals, Clinical Department for Small Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3933-8864","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fabiano","family":"Montiani-Ferreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Departamento de Medicina Veterinaria, Universidade Federal do Paran\u00e3, Curitiba 80035-050, PR, Brazil"},{"name":"Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1478-1509","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jennifer","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"},{"name":"Graham Veterinary Consulting, LLC, Madison, AL 35758, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6060-9083","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Edita","family":"Jeklov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Veterinary Research Institute, 621 00 Brno, Czech Republic"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sari","family":"Kanfer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Exotic Animal Veterinary Center, Pasadena, CA 91107, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela","family":"Lennox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Avian & Exotic Animal Clinic, Indianapolis, IN 46268, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Guillaume","family":"Desoubeaux","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Universite de Tours, 37044 Tours, France"},{"name":"Unit of Parasitology-Mycology-Tropical Medicine, Hospital Bretonneau, 37032 Tours, France"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8923-561X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ethan","family":"Biswell","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Biosphere Lab, Louisville, KY 40299, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7180-153X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carolyn","family":"Cray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL 33136, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3082-6885","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anja","family":"Joachim","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Institute of Parasitology, Department of Biological Sciences and Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1097\/01.qco.0000244055.46382.23","article-title":"Microsporidiosis: Current status","volume":"19","author":"Didier","year":"2006","journal-title":"Curr. 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