{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T06:35:06Z","timestamp":1772692506758,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":76,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]],"date-time":"2026-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1772323200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Dogs exhibit sophisticated interspecific communication skills, including the use of visual signals to indicate the location of inaccessible resources, known as showing behaviour. Previous studies have investigated factors such as age and training, but the effects of breed and cranial morphology remain unclear. Here, we tested a uniquely large sample of 101 pet dogs from 43 different breeds, using a standardized out-of-reach\/hidden object task to assess three key visual behaviours: gaze at the owner, gaze at the reward, and gaze alternation between owner and reward. Dogs were tested in familiar environments without pre-training, and owners were instructed to remain passive to avoid unintentional cues. Our results confirm the importance of gaze alternation and gazing at the reward as central components of showing behaviour, particularly when both owner and reward were present. Contrary to expectations, we found no effect of breed or Cephalic Index on these behavioural patterns, suggesting that life experiences rather than artificial selection can influence visual communicative strategies in this specific context. The exceptionally large and diversified sample of this study provides unprecedented insight into the consistency of visual signalling across dog breeds.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16050760","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,3]],"date-time":"2026-03-03T16:18:45Z","timestamp":1772554725000},"page":"760","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Showing Behaviour in One Hundred and One Dogs: Gazing, Breed and Cephalic Index"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Samuele","family":"Commauda","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ethology Unit, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via Volta 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-6631-043X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Veronica","family":"Maglieri","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ethology Unit, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via Volta 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8425-1939","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emanuela","family":"Prato-Previde","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathophysiology and Transplantation, University of Milan, 20122 Milan, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2038-4596","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Elisabetta","family":"Palagi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ethology Unit, Department of Biology, University of Pisa, Via Volta 6, 56126 Pisa, Italy"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"541","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-020-01448-2","article-title":"The scholar\u2019s best friend: Research trends in dog cognitive and behavioral studies","volume":"24","author":"Aria","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"209","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-407186-5.00005-7","article-title":"The world from a dog\u2019s point of view: A review and synthesis of dog cognition research","volume":"45","author":"Bensky","year":"2013","journal-title":"Adv. Study Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2013.05.001","article-title":"Do dogs get the point? A review of dog-human communication ability","volume":"44","author":"Kaminski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scheider, L., Grassmann, S., Kaminski, J., and Tomasello, M. (2011). Domestic dogs use contextual information and tone of voice when following a human pointing gesture. PLoS ONE, 6.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0021676"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"201","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-011-0446-x","article-title":"Comprehension and utilisation of pointing gestures and gazing in dog\u2013human communication in relatively complex situations","volume":"15","author":"Lakatos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.12.055","article-title":"Dogs can discriminate emotional expressions of human faces","volume":"25","author":"Schmitt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3796","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-40468-y","article-title":"Wolves lead and dogs follow, but they both cooperate with humans","volume":"9","author":"Range","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1231","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-016-1010-5","article-title":"The importance of gestural communication: A study of human\u2013dog communication using incongruent information","volume":"19","author":"Scandurra","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Siniscalchi, M., d\u2019Ingeo, S., Minunno, M., and Quaranta, A. (2018). Communication in dogs. Animals, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani8080131"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-003-0205-8","article-title":"Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs show situation-dependent recognition of human attention","volume":"7","author":"Varga","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.07.003","article-title":"Human-like social skills in dogs?","volume":"9","author":"Hare","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1176960","article-title":"Differential sensitivity to human communication in dogs, wolves, and human infants","volume":"325","author":"Gergely","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"325","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2008.11.002","article-title":"Adapting to the human world: Dogs\u2019 responsiveness to our social cues","volume":"80","author":"Reid","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2004.01.012","article-title":"Dogs respond appropriately to cues of humans\u2019 attentional focus","volume":"66","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1163\/156853908X395530","article-title":"Domestic dogs are sensitive to a human\u2019s perspective","volume":"146","author":"Kaminski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Prato-Previde, E., and Marshall-Pescini, S. (2014). Social looking in the domestic dog. Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior, Springer.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-53994-7_5"},{"key":"ref_17","first-page":"23","article-title":"Gazing behavior during problem solving tasks in domestic dogs: A critical review","volume":"4","author":"Cavalli","year":"2018","journal-title":"Dog Behav."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.118.1.48","article-title":"Referential communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)","volume":"118","author":"Leavens","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savalli, C., Resende, B., and Gaunet, F. (2016). Eye contact is crucial for referential communication in pet dogs. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0162161"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1043","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2011.07.039","article-title":"Human-directed gazing behaviour in puppies and adult dogs, Canis lupus familiaris","volume":"82","author":"Passalacqua","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104487","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2021.104487","article-title":"Effect of different experiences with humans in dogs\u2019 visual communication","volume":"192","author":"Mendes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"727","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-011-0407-4","article-title":"Communication between domestic dogs and humans: Effects of shelter housing upon the gaze to the human","volume":"14","author":"Barrera","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"937","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-015-0864-2","article-title":"Guide dogs as a model for investigating the effect of life experience and training on gazing behaviour","volume":"18","author":"Scandurra","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Konno, A., Romero, T., Inoue-Murayama, M., Saito, A., and Hasegawa, T. (2016). Dog breed differences in visual communication with humans. PLoS ONE, 11.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0164760"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"602","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2010.04.003","article-title":"Breed differences in dogs\u2019 (Canis familiaris) gaze to the human face","volume":"84","author":"Jakovcevic","year":"2010","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"190946","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.190946","article-title":"Wolf-like or dog-like? A comparison of gazing behaviour across three dog breeds tested in their familiar environments","volume":"6","author":"Maglieri","year":"2019","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1073","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-019-01298-7","article-title":"A wolfdog point of view on the impossible task paradigm","volume":"22","author":"Sommese","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"270","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lmot.2013.04.004","article-title":"\u201cWe will work for you\u201d\u2013Social influence may suppress individual food preferences in a communicative situation in dogs","volume":"44","author":"Sanjurjo","year":"2013","journal-title":"Learn. Motiv."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pongr\u00e1cz, P., and Lugosi, C.A. (2024). Cooperative but Dependent\u2013Functional Breed Selection in Dogs Influences Human-Directed Gazing in a Difficult Object-Manipulation Task. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14162348"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9293","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-88702-w","article-title":"Shorter headed dogs, visually cooperative breeds, younger and playful dogs form eye contact faster with an unfamiliar human","volume":"11","author":"Kubinyi","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"159","DOI":"10.1007\/s100710000072","article-title":"Intentional behaviour in dog-human communication: An experimental analysis of \u201cshowing\u201d behaviour in the dog","volume":"3","year":"2000","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-023-01744-7","article-title":"When the owner does not know: Comparing puppies and adult dogs\u2019 showing behavior","volume":"26","author":"Pedretti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"849","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-011-0418-1","article-title":"Functionally referential and intentional communication in the domestic dog: Effects of spatial and social contexts","volume":"14","author":"Gaunet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Savalli, C., Ades, C., and Gaunet, F. (2014). Are Dogs Able to Communicate with Their Owners about a Desirable Food in a Referential and Intentional Way?. PLoS ONE, 9, Correction in PLoS ONE 2014, 9, e111387.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0108003"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104218","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2020.104218","article-title":"Showing behavior in animal-assisted intervention and pet dogs","volume":"179","author":"Cavalli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"311","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-009-0279-z","article-title":"How do guide dogs and pet dogs (Canis familiaris) ask their owners for their toy and for playing?","volume":"13","author":"Gaunet","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moser, A.Y., Welch, M., Brown, W.Y., McGreevy, P., and Bennett, P.C. (2024). Methods of behavioral testing in dogs: A scoping review and analysis of test stimuli. Front. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2024.1455574"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2016.09.023","article-title":"A comparison between wolves, Canis lupus, and dogs, Canis familiaris, in showing behaviour towards humans","volume":"122","author":"Heberlein","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"387","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-010-0373-2","article-title":"Handler beliefs affect scent detection dog outcomes","volume":"14","author":"Lit","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"G\u00e1csi, M., Gy\u00f6ri, B., Vir\u00e1nyi, Z., Kubinyi, E., Range, F., Bel\u00e9nyi, B., and Mikl\u00f3si, \u00c1. (2009). Explaining dog wolf differences in utilizing human pointing gestures: Selection for synergistic shifts in the development of some social skills. PLoS ONE, 4.","DOI":"10.1371\/annotation\/9d7a0174-3068-4c44-bb98-b8a9bc5a99d5"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sexton, C.L., Buckley, C., Lieberfarb, J., Subiaul, F., Hecht, E.E., and Bradley, B.J. (2023). What is written on a dog\u2019s face? Evaluating the impact of facial phenotypes on communication between humans and canines. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13142385"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20200097","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2020.0097","article-title":"Teenage dogs? Evidence for adolescent-phase conflict behaviour and an association between attachment to humans and pubertal timing in the domestic dog","volume":"16","author":"Asher","year":"2020","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4737","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2022.11.003","article-title":"Domestic dog lineages reveal genetic drivers of behavioral diversification","volume":"185","author":"Dutrow","year":"2022","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"228","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2014.04.007","article-title":"Domestic dog skull diversity across breeds, breed groupings, and genetic clusters","volume":"9","author":"Georgevsky","year":"2014","journal-title":"J. Vet. Behav."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1159\/000073756","article-title":"A strong correlation exists between the distribution of retinal ganglion cells and nose length in the dog","volume":"63","author":"McGreevy","year":"2004","journal-title":"Brain Behav. Evol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McGreevy, P.D., Georgevsky, D., Carrasco, J., Valenzuela, M., Duffy, D.L., and Serpell, J.A. (2013). Dog behavior co-varies with height, bodyweight and skull shape. PLoS ONE, 8.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0080529"},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Roberts, T., McGreevy, P., and Valenzuela, M. (2010). Human induced rotation and reorganization of the brain of domestic dogs. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0011946"},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1798","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-017-1404-7","article-title":"What do dogs (Canis familiaris) see? A review of vision in dogs and implications for cognition research","volume":"25","author":"Byosiere","year":"2018","journal-title":"Psychon. Bull. Rev."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952523800004430","article-title":"Color vision in the dog","volume":"3","author":"Neitz","year":"1989","journal-title":"Vis. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1019","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-020-01409-9","article-title":"Effect of shared information and owner behavior on showing in dogs (Canis familiaris)","volume":"23","author":"Henschel","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"378","DOI":"10.32614\/RJ-2017-066","article-title":"glmmTMB balances speed and flexibility among packages for zero-inflated generalized linear mixed modeling","volume":"9","author":"Brooks","year":"2017","journal-title":"R J."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dobson, A. (2002). An Introduction to Generalized Linear Models, Chapman & Hall\/CRC.","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420057683"},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"27","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.116.1.27","article-title":"Dogs\u2019(Canis familaris) responsiveness to human pointing gestures","volume":"116","author":"Soproni","year":"2002","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"206","DOI":"10.1075\/is.10.2.06wob","article-title":"Breed differences in domestic dogs\u2019(Canis familiaris) comprehension of human communicative signals","volume":"10","author":"Wobber","year":"2009","journal-title":"Interact. Stud."},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lazarowski, L., Waggoner, L.P., Krichbaum, S., Singletary, M., Haney, P., Rogers, B., and Angle, C. (2020). Selecting dogs for explosives detection: Behavioral characteristics. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00597"},{"key":"ref_56","unstructured":"Fox, J., and Weisberg, S. (2019). An R Companion to Applied Regression, Sage."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Bretz, F., Hothorn, T., and Westfall, P. (2010). Multiple Comparisons Using R, Chapman & Hall\/CRC."},{"key":"ref_58","unstructured":"Lenth, R.V. (2020). Emmeans: Estimated Marginal Means, R Foundation for Statistic Computing. R Package Version 1.5.3."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1072702","article-title":"The domestication of social cognition in dogs","volume":"298","author":"Hare","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"322","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721416661318","article-title":"Current trends in dog-human communication: Do dogs inform?","volume":"25","author":"Kaminski","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-26503-5","article-title":"Out-of-reach rewards elicit human-oriented referential communicative behaviours in family dogs but not in family pigs","volume":"13","author":"Morvai","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-8624.2005.00845.x","article-title":"Intentionality as measured in the persistence and elaboration of communication by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)","volume":"76","author":"Leavens","year":"2005","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"513","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jveb.2015.08.008","article-title":"Canis sensitivus: Affiliation and dogs\u2019 sensitivity to others\u2019 behavior as the basis for synchronization with humans?","volume":"10","author":"Duranton","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Vet. Behav."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-017-1093-7","article-title":"Differences in problem-solving between canid populations: Do domestication and lifetime experience affect persistence?","volume":"20","author":"Brubaker","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Carballo, F., Cavalli, C.M., G\u00e1csi, M., Mikl\u00f3si, \u00c1., and Kubinyi, E. (2020). Assistance and therapy dogs are better problem solvers than both trained and untrained family dogs. Front. Vet. Sci., 7.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2020.00164"},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"416","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2009.03.015","article-title":"Agility and search and rescue training differently affects pet dogs\u2019 behaviour in socio-cognitive tasks","volume":"81","author":"Passalacqua","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-018-1180-4","article-title":"Sex, skull length, breed, and age predict how dogs look at faces of humans and conspecifics","volume":"21","author":"Iotchev","year":"2018","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_68","first-page":"763","article-title":"A Simple Reason for a Big Difference. Wolves Do Not Look Back at Humans, but Dogs Do","volume":"13","author":"Kubinyi","year":"2003","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"961","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-013-0629-8","article-title":"Looking back at \u2018looking back\u2019: Operationalising referential gaze for dingoes in an unsolvable task","volume":"16","author":"Smith","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"141","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-019-01324-8","article-title":"Gazing as a help requesting behavior: A comparison of dogs participating in animal-assisted interventions and pet dogs","volume":"23","author":"Cavalli","year":"2020","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2008.03.004","article-title":"Effect of reinforcement, reinforcer omission and extinction on a communicative response in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris)","volume":"78","author":"Bentosela","year":"2008","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2009.12.027","article-title":"The performance of stray dogs (Canis familiaris) living in a shelter on human-guided object-choice tasks","volume":"79","author":"Udell","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14284","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41229-8","article-title":"The difference between two brachycephalic and one mesocephalic dog breeds\u2019 problem-solving performance suggests evidence for paedomorphism in behaviour","volume":"13","author":"Ujfalussy","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.2752\/089279315X14129350722217","article-title":"Seeing dogs: Human preferences for dog physical attributes","volume":"28","author":"Hecht","year":"2015","journal-title":"Anthrozo\u00f6s"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Packer, R.M.A., O\u2019Neill, D.G., Fletcher, F., and Farnworth, M.J. (2019). Great expectations, inconvenient truths, and the paradoxes of the dog-owner relationship for owners of brachycephalic dogs. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0219918"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1802","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-01992-x","article-title":"Breed, sex, and litter effects in 2-month old puppies\u2019 behaviour in a standardised open-field test","volume":"7","author":"Barnard","year":"2017","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/5\/760\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,5]],"date-time":"2026-03-05T05:14:42Z","timestamp":1772687682000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/5\/760"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]},"references-count":76,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16050760"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16050760","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,1]]}}}