{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T08:13:34Z","timestamp":1773389614357,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":98,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1773187200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002428","name":"FWF Austrian Science Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["P36853"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["P36853"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002428","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100002428","name":"FWF Austrian Science Fund","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["10.55776\/W1262"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["10.55776\/W1262"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100002428","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The last few decades have provided mounting evidence that dogs are not only able to behave in intelligent ways but also that they have the capacity to make inferences by associating visible and imagined events. In particular, the kinds of inferences shown by dogs elevate them to \u2018Popperian animals\u2019, which are rational in the sense of being able to conduct trials and errors in the head. Here, I review a selection of studies with dogs that fulfil this attribution. Dogs have been found capable of (a) making inferences by exclusion, with both computer images and word-object associations, (b) drawing inferences about the efficiency of the observed methods, the situational constraints of the situation, and the goals of the model in the course of selective (\u2018rational\u2019) imitation, and (c) going beyond directly observable cues when inferring the intention, the knowledge, or even the beliefs of humans in perspective-taking tasks. Despite the contamination with ambiguous data, open questions, and current debates about the possession of (non-linguistic) mechanisms for creating mental representations of the mental states of others (called mind reading), we may safely assume that domesticated dogs have become Popperian animals equipped with the cognitive tool set of inferential thinking and perspective taking.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16060877","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]],"date-time":"2026-03-11T15:32:09Z","timestamp":1773243129000},"page":"877","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Popperian Dogs\u2014Practical Rationality and Inferential Reasoning in Dogs"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0217-136X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludwig","family":"Huber","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Cognition and Applied Ethology, Messerli Research Institute, University of Veterinary Medicine, Veterin\u00e4rplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"Medical University of Vienna, 1090 Vienna, Austria"},{"name":"University of Vienna, 1010 Vienna, Austria"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Huber, L. (2024). The Rational Animal. Search of Complex Cognition in Non-Human Animals, Springer. [1st ed.].","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-60803-2"},{"key":"ref_2","unstructured":"Simon, H. (1982). Models of Bounded Rationality, MIT Press."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2005.02.019","article-title":"Simple heuristics and rules of thumb: Where psychologists and behavioural biologists might meet","volume":"69","author":"Hutchinson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_4","unstructured":"Popper, K.R. (1972). Objective Knowledge: An Evolutionary Approach, Clarendon Press."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Dennett, D.C. (1996). Kinds of Minds, Basic Books."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"179","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-5914.1975.tb00350.x","article-title":"Why the Law of Effect Will Not Go Away","volume":"5","author":"Dennett","year":"1975","journal-title":"J. Theory Soc. Behav."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurley, S., and Nudds, M. (2006). Styles of rationality. Rational Animals?, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198528272.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dan\u00f3n, L. (2025). Popperian animals and instrumental reasoning. Philos. Psychol., 1\u201325.","DOI":"10.1080\/09515089.2025.2571444"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Piaget, J. (1952). The Origins of Intelligence in Children, International University Press.","DOI":"10.1037\/11494-000"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"694","DOI":"10.1038\/267694a0","article-title":"Are monkeys logical?","volume":"267","author":"McGonigle","year":"1977","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/S0376-6357(01)00150-4","article-title":"The case for a cognitive approach to animal learning and behavior","volume":"54","author":"Zentall","year":"2001","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.1038\/s42003-021-02855-y","article-title":"Low-rank Gallus gallus domesticus chicks are better at transitive inference reasoning","volume":"4","author":"Daisley","year":"2021","journal-title":"Commun. Biol."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"778","DOI":"10.1038\/nature02723","article-title":"Pinyon jays use transitive inference to predict social dominance","volume":"430","author":"Bond","year":"2004","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_14","unstructured":"Changeux, J.P., and Chavaillon, J. (1995). Cause\/induced motion; intention\/spontaneous motion. Origins of the Human Brain, Oxford University Press."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(94)90035-3","article-title":"Levels of causal understanding in chimpanzees and children","volume":"50","author":"Premack","year":"1994","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"232","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.118.2.232","article-title":"Inferences About the Location of Food in the Great Apes (Pan paniscus, Pan troglodytes, Gorilla gorilla, and Pongo pygmaeus)","volume":"118","author":"Call","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hara, M., Auersperg, A.M.I., Bugnyar, T., and Huber, L. (2015). Inference by exclusion in Goffin cockatoos (Cacatua goffini). PLoS ONE, 10.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0134894"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"965","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-016-0998-x","article-title":"Reasoning by exclusion in the kea (Nestor notabilis)","volume":"19","author":"Schwing","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"587","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-008-0149-0","article-title":"Inferential reasoning by exclusion in pigeons, dogs, and humans","volume":"11","author":"Aust","year":"2008","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1682","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1097859","article-title":"Word learning in a domestic dog: Evidence for \u201cfast mapping\u201d","volume":"304","author":"Kaminski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"160","DOI":"10.1126\/science.adq5474","article-title":"Dogs with a large vocabulary of object labels learn new labels by overhearing like 1.5-year-old infants","volume":"391","author":"Dror","year":"2026","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14070","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-021-93581-2","article-title":"Word learning dogs (Canis familiaris) provide an animal model for studying exceptional performance","volume":"11","author":"Fugazza","year":"2021","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"42","DOI":"10.1111\/mila.12388","article-title":"Imitation and culture: What gives?","volume":"38","author":"Heyes","year":"2021","journal-title":"Mind Lang."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2299","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2009.0060","article-title":"The evolution of imitation: What do the capacities of non-human animals tell us about the mechanisms of imitation?","volume":"364","author":"Huber","year":"2009","journal-title":"Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dautenhahn, K., and Nehaniv, C. (2002). The correspondence problem. Imitation in Animals and Artefacts, MIT Press.","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3676.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hurley, S., and Nudds, M. (2006). Rational or associative? Imitation in Japanese quail. Rational Animals?, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198528272.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00218","article-title":"Twelve-month-old infants interpret action in context","volume":"11","author":"Woodward","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(03)00128-1","article-title":"Teleological reasoning in infancy: The naive theory of rational action","volume":"7","author":"Gergely","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1038\/415755a","article-title":"Rational imitation in preverbal infants","volume":"415","author":"Gergely","year":"2002","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1176960","article-title":"Differential sensitivity to human communication in dogs, wolves, and human infants","volume":"325","author":"Gergely","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"868","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2007.04.026","article-title":"Selective imitation in domestic dogs","volume":"17","author":"Range","year":"2007","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"F31","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-7687.2007.00630.x","article-title":"Enculturated chimpanzees imitate rationally","volume":"10","author":"Buttelmann","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dev. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"150505","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.150505","article-title":"Rapid mimicry and emotional contagion in domestic dogs","volume":"2","author":"Palagi","year":"2015","journal-title":"R. Soc. Open Sci."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"703","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-017-1092-8","article-title":"Investigating emotional contagion in dogs (Canis familiaris) to emotional sounds of humans and conspecifics","volume":"20","author":"Huber","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"109","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2008.09.011","article-title":"Imitation and emulation by dogs using a bidirectional control procedure","volume":"80","author":"Miller","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2010.1142","article-title":"Automatic imitation in dogs","volume":"278","author":"Range","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-019-00400-w","article-title":"Selective overimitation in dogs","volume":"48","author":"Huber","year":"2020","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721416656329","article-title":"How dogs perceive and understand us","volume":"25","author":"Huber","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Mikl\u00f3si, \u00c1. (2015). Dog Behaviour, Evolution and Cognition, Oxford University Press. [2nd ed.]."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminski, J., and Marshall-Pescini, S. (2014). The Social Dog: Behaviour and Cognition, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-407818-5.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"345","DOI":"10.1177\/0963721416657540","article-title":"What Is Special About Dog Cognition?","volume":"25","author":"Wynne","year":"2016","journal-title":"Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(00)00025-7","article-title":"The eyes have it: The neuroethology, function and evolution of social gaze","volume":"24","author":"Emery","year":"2000","journal-title":"Neurosci. Behav. Rev."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"163","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-011-0442-1","article-title":"Dogs do look at images: Eye tracking in canine cognition research","volume":"15","author":"Somppi","year":"2012","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"793","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-013-0713-0","article-title":"How dogs scan familiar and inverted faces: An eye movement study","volume":"17","author":"Somppi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2014.12.055","article-title":"Dogs Can Discriminate Emotional Expressions of Human Faces","volume":"25","author":"Schmitt","year":"2015","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20150883","DOI":"10.1098\/rsbl.2015.0883","article-title":"Dogs recognize dog and human emotions","volume":"12","author":"Albuquerque","year":"2016","journal-title":"Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2010.09.014","article-title":"Selective attention to humans in companion dogs, Canis familiaris","volume":"80","author":"Mongillo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"257","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.117.3.257","article-title":"Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) are sensitive to the attentional state of humans","volume":"117","author":"Call","year":"2003","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.beproc.2004.01.012","article-title":"Dogs respond appropriately to cues of humans\u2019 attentional focus","volume":"66","author":"Viranyi","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behav. Process."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111","DOI":"10.1002\/dev.20082","article-title":"Species-specific differences and similarities in the behavior of hand-raised dog and wolf pups in social situations with humans","volume":"47","author":"Kubinyi","year":"2005","journal-title":"Dev. Psychobiol."},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"326","DOI":"10.1037\/com0000125","article-title":"Animal pointing: Changing trends and findings from 30 years of research","volume":"132","author":"Krause","year":"2018","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"34","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-022-00546-0","article-title":"Following the human point: Research with nonhuman animals since Povinelli, Nelson, and Boysen (1990)","volume":"51","author":"McCreary","year":"2022","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1007\/s100710050016","article-title":"Use of experimenter-given cues in dogs","volume":"1","year":"1998","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kaminski, J., and Marshall-Pescini, S. (2014). What Dogs Understand about Humans. The Social Dog: Behaviour and Cognition, Academic Press.","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-407818-5.00001-2"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.07.003","article-title":"Human-like social skills in dogs?","volume":"9","author":"Hare","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1634","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1072702","article-title":"The domestication of social cognition in dogs","volume":"298","author":"Hare","year":"2002","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1016\/S0065-3454(09)39003-8","article-title":"The dog as a model for understanding human social behavior","volume":"39","author":"Kubinyi","year":"2009","journal-title":"Adv. Study Behav."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-003-0205-8","article-title":"Are readers of our face readers of our minds? Dogs (Canis familiaris) show situation-dependent recognition of human\u2019s attention","volume":"7","author":"Varga","year":"2004","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-011-0034-6","article-title":"Can your dog read your mind? Understanding the causes of canine perspective taking","volume":"39","author":"Udell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"318","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-011-0043-5","article-title":"Reevaluating canine perspective-taking behavior","volume":"39","author":"Udell","year":"2011","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-011-0040-8","article-title":"Evaluating the logic of perspective-taking experiments","volume":"39","author":"Range","year":"2011","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.120.3.169","article-title":"Obey or not obey? Dogs (Canis familiaris) behave differently in response to attentional states of their owners","volume":"120","author":"Schwab","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"299","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2004.03.004","article-title":"Visual perspective taking in dogs (Canis familiaris) in the presence of barriers","volume":"88","author":"Call","year":"2004","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"385","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-012-0579-6","article-title":"Dogs steal in the dark","volume":"16","author":"Kaminski","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_65","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"351","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-012-0576-9","article-title":"Domestic dogs conceal auditory but not visual information from others","volume":"16","author":"Keckeisen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.120.2.154","article-title":"Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) conceal visual and auditory information from others","volume":"120","author":"Melis","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.104.3.203","article-title":"Inferences about guessing and knowing by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)","volume":"104","author":"Povinelli","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"129","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9280.1996.tb00345.x","article-title":"Chimpanzees: Joint visual attention","volume":"7","author":"Povinelli","year":"1996","journal-title":"Psychol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1016\/S0168-1591(02)00284-8","article-title":"Clever hounds: Social cognition in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)","volume":"81","author":"Cooper","year":"2003","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1375","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-014-0773-9","article-title":"Visual perspective taking by dogs (Canis familiaris) in a Guesser-Knower task: Evidence for a canine theory of mind?","volume":"17","author":"Maginnity","year":"2014","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"581","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-017-1082-x","article-title":"Dogs demonstrate perspective taking based on geometrical gaze following in a Guesser\u2013Knower task","volume":"20","author":"Catala","year":"2017","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1006\/anbe.1994.1234","article-title":"Cues, convergence and a curmudgeon: A reply to Povinelli","volume":"48","author":"Heyes","year":"1994","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-005-0257-z","article-title":"A nonverbal test of knowledge attribution: A comparative study on dogs and children","volume":"9","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"979","DOI":"10.1163\/156853908X395530","article-title":"Domestic dogs are sensitive to a human\u2019s perspective","volume":"146","author":"Kaminski","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behaviour"},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-006-0051-6","article-title":"Reproducing human actions and action sequences: \u201cDo as I Do!\u201d in a dog","volume":"9","author":"Byrne","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X98000703","article-title":"Theory of mind in nonhuman primates","volume":"21","author":"Heyes","year":"1998","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-014-0704-4","article-title":"Animal mindreading: What\u2019s the problem?","volume":"22","author":"Heyes","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychon. B Rev."},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"111811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.isci.2025.111811","article-title":"Canine perspective taking: Anticipating the behavior of an unseen human","volume":"28","author":"Huber","year":"2025","journal-title":"iScience"},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(83)90004-5","article-title":"Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children\u2019s understanding of deception","volume":"13","author":"Wimmer","year":"1983","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-016-0956-7","article-title":"Differing views: Can chimpanzees do Level 2 perspective-taking?","volume":"19","author":"Karg","year":"2016","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2009.12.006","article-title":"False-belief understanding in infants","volume":"14","author":"Baillargeon","year":"2010","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110","DOI":"10.1126\/science.aaf8110","article-title":"Great apes anticipate that other individuals will act according to false beliefs","volume":"354","author":"Krupenye","year":"2016","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20210906","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2021.0906","article-title":"Dogs follow human misleading suggestions more often when the informant has a false belief","volume":"288","author":"Lonardo","year":"2021","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_84","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Buttelmann, D., Buttelmann, F., Carpenter, M., Call, J., and Tomasello, M. (2017). Great apes distinguish true from false beliefs in an interactive helping task. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0173793"},{"key":"ref_85","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2009.05.006","article-title":"Eighteen-month-old infants show false belief understanding in an active helping paradigm","volume":"112","author":"Buttelmann","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"ref_86","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.3758\/s13420-011-0041-7","article-title":"Theory of mind in dogs? Examining method and concept","volume":"39","author":"Horowitz","year":"2011","journal-title":"Learn. Behav."},{"key":"ref_87","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1208","DOI":"10.2307\/1128761","article-title":"Young children\u2019s knowledge about visual perception: Hiding objects from others","volume":"49","author":"Flavell","year":"1978","journal-title":"Child Dev."},{"key":"ref_88","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"195","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2010.10.001","article-title":"Do dogs distinguish rational from irrational acts?","volume":"81","author":"Kaminski","year":"2011","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_89","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/1744-9081-5-31","article-title":"Effects of selection for cooperation and attention in dogs","volume":"5","author":"McGreevy","year":"2009","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Funct."},{"key":"ref_90","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"20221621","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.2022.1621","article-title":"Unwilling or unable? Using three-dimensional tracking to evaluate dogs\u2019 reactions to differing human intentions","volume":"290","author":"Lonardo","year":"2023","journal-title":"Proc. R. Soc. B Biol. Sci."},{"key":"ref_91","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.anbehav.2005.10.007","article-title":"Rhesus monkeys, Macaca mulatta, know what others can and cannot hear","volume":"71","author":"Santos","year":"2006","journal-title":"Anim. Behav."},{"key":"ref_92","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"38","DOI":"10.1037\/0735-7036.120.1.38","article-title":"Making inferences about the location of hidden food: Social dog, causal ape","volume":"120","author":"Kaminski","year":"2006","journal-title":"J. Comp. Psychol."},{"key":"ref_93","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.applanim.2010.06.002","article-title":"Domesticated dogs (Canis familiaris) react to what others can and cannot hear","volume":"126","author":"Kundey","year":"2010","journal-title":"Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci."},{"key":"ref_94","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1007\/s10071-025-02028-y","article-title":"Is dogs\u2019 tendency to follow human misleading communicative cues influenced by humans\u2019 auditory perspective?","volume":"29","author":"Lonardo","year":"2026","journal-title":"Anim. Cogn."},{"key":"ref_95","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1062","DOI":"10.1126\/science.325_1062","article-title":"Going to the dogs","volume":"325","author":"Morell","year":"2009","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_96","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2022.01.003","article-title":"Comparing wolves and dogs: Current status and implications for human \u2018self-domestication\u2019","volume":"26","author":"Range","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_97","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4820","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2025.08.013","article-title":"Dogs extend verbal labels for functional classification of objects","volume":"35","author":"Fugazza","year":"2025","journal-title":"Curr. Biol."},{"key":"ref_98","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21747","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-47864-5","article-title":"A citizen science model turns anecdotes into evidence by revealing similar characteristics among Gifted Word Learner dogs","volume":"13","author":"Dror","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/6\/877\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,13]],"date-time":"2026-03-13T05:25:57Z","timestamp":1773379557000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/6\/877"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]},"references-count":98,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,3]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16060877"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16060877","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,11]]}}}