{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T12:10:46Z","timestamp":1778501446589,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":67,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]],"date-time":"2026-05-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1778284800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Milk production in humid tropical regions depends heavily on environmental conditions, yet little is known about how climatic variability affects milk quality in small-scale dairy systems in the Ecuadorian Amazon. This study examined the link between climatic variability and the physicochemical and microbiological quality of raw milk on dairy farms in Pastaza Province, Ecuador. Researchers collected and analyzed 127 milk samples in 2024 for fat, protein, total solids, and solids-not-fat using an automated milk analyzer. They also measured somatic cell count and total bacterial count as microbiological indicators. Climatic data, including precipitation, mean temperature, evaporation, relative humidity, cloud cover, and wind speed, were obtained from official meteorological records and analyzed using generalized linear models and multivariate analysis. The physicochemical makeup of milk remained stable despite climate change, indicating that tropical pasture-based dairy systems exhibit some productive resilience. By contrast, microbiological indicators, especially somatic cell count, varied more and were sensitive to environmental factors such as wind speed. These results show that milk composition remains stable under humid tropical conditions, whereas sanitary indicators respond more to climate variability. Better management and hygiene are crucial to maintaining sustainable dairy production systems in these environments.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16101458","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T10:50:52Z","timestamp":1778496652000},"page":"1458","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Climatic Variability and Milk Quality as Sustainability Indicators in Dairy Farming Systems of Pastaza Province, Ecuador"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Darwin","family":"Yanez Avalos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4467-064X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jos\u00e9","family":"de la Torres Moreira","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Johana","family":"Delgado Lozada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kimberley","family":"Villamarin Alvarez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Milton","family":"Montalvo Lozada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Carlos Chasipanta","family":"Chuquimarca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3029-4786","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"John","family":"Castillo Torres","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Fauna, Conservation and Global Health Research Group, Amazonian Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9930-0617","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Iv\u00e1n","family":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Puetate","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil 090510, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Ronnie","family":"Mayorga Burbano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Ibarra Campus, Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador, Ibarra 100112, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Luis","family":"Condo Plaza","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Science Programme\u2014Ecuador, Polytechnic School of Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba 060155, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Manuel","family":"Paredes Orozco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Science Programme\u2014Ecuador, Polytechnic School of Chimborazo (ESPOCH), Riobamba 060155, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9437-0736","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pablo","family":"Marini","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, National University of Rosario, Rosario S2000CGK, Argentina"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Franklin","family":"S\u00e1nchez Pila","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Agroecology Program, Amazon Regional University (IKIAM), Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kleber","family":"Gallegos Guerra","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Life Sciences, Graduate School, Amazon Regional University (Ikiam), Km 7 Via Muyuna, Muyuna Parish, Tena 150102, Ecuador"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Small-scale milk production systems in Colombia: A regional analysis of a potential strategy for providing food security","volume":"8","author":"Osuna","year":"2020","journal-title":"Future Food J. Food Agric. Soc."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chango-Sailema, W.G., Paguay-Soxo, P.X., Maz\u00f3n-Fierro, M., Maz\u00f3n-Fierro, G.J., and Sayago-Heredia, J.P. (2025). Climate characterization and prediction in vulnerable regions of the Ecuadorian Amazon. Engineering, Preprint.","DOI":"10.20944\/preprints202502.0796.v1"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Toghdory, A., Ghoorchi, T., Asadi, M., Bokharaeian, M., Najafi, M., and Ghassemi Nejad, J. (2022). Effects of environmental temperature and humidity on milk composition, microbial load, and somatic cells in milk of Holstein dairy cows in the northeast regions of Iran. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12182484"},{"key":"ref_4","first-page":"154","article-title":"Estudo dos elementos clim\u00e1ticos sobre a produ\u00e7\u00e3o leiteira bovina na regi\u00e3o de transi\u00e7\u00e3o de climas","volume":"13","author":"Siviero","year":"2023","journal-title":"Rev. Ibero-Am. Ci\u00eanc. Ambient."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"376","DOI":"10.70749\/ijbr.v3i2.710","article-title":"Effect of heat stress on various physiological activities and especially on reproductive performance in dairy animals","volume":"3","author":"Nasir","year":"2025","journal-title":"Indus J. Biosci. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","first-page":"20","article-title":"Evaluation of the physicochemical and microbiological quality of raw milk in the dairy industry of Napo, Ecuador","volume":"15","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Cient. Fac. Cienc. Vet."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.7455\/ijfs\/9.2.2020.a3","article-title":"Modelling relationships between raw milk quality parameters and climatic conditions: The case study of a 3-years survey in Serbia","volume":"9","author":"Djekic","year":"2020","journal-title":"Int. J. Food Stud."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"288","DOI":"10.36812\/pag.2020261288-311","article-title":"Efeito do estresse t\u00e9rmico por calor na produ\u00e7\u00e3o de vacas leiteiras","volume":"26","author":"Daltro","year":"2020","journal-title":"Pesq. Agropecu\u00e1ria Ga\u00facha"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mezzetti, M., Passamonti, M.M., Dall\u2019Asta, M., Bertoni, G., Trevisi, E., and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2024). Emerging parameters justifying a revised quality concept for cow milk. Foods, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods13111650"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.21071\/az.v73i283.5856","article-title":"Conex\u00e3o entre vari\u00e1veis meteorol\u00f3gicas e a produ\u00e7\u00e3o de leite na zona clim\u00e1tica Cfb no sul do Brasil","volume":"73","author":"Gabi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Zootec."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e52604","DOI":"10.4025\/actascianimsci.v43i1.52604","article-title":"Influence of meteorological elements on behavioral responses of Gir cows and effects on milk quality","volume":"43","author":"Silva","year":"2021","journal-title":"Acta Sci. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_12","unstructured":"FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) (2020). The State of Food and Agriculture 2020: Overcoming Water Challenges in Agriculture."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosa, D.R.d., Ferreira, N.C.R., Oliveira, C.E.A., Moreira, A.N.H., Battisti, R., Casaroli, D., Barbari, M., Bambi, G., and Andrade, R.R. (2025). Climate Change and State of the Art of the Sustainable Dairy Farming: A Systematic Review. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15202997"},{"key":"ref_14","first-page":"8587","article-title":"Sistemas agroforestales en la Regi\u00f3n Amaz\u00f3nica Ecuatoriana","volume":"8","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cienc. Lat. Rev. Cient. Multidiscip."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.17163\/lgr.n33.2021.03","article-title":"Calidad de la leche cruda y sistema de pago por calidad en el Ecuador","volume":"33","author":"Requelme","year":"2021","journal-title":"Granja"},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"INEC (Instituto Nacional de Estad\u00edstica y Censos) (2026, March 27). Encuesta de Superficie y Producci\u00f3n Agropecuaria Continua (ESPAC) 2024, Available online: https:\/\/www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec\/estadisticas-agropecuarias-2\/."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.3923\/ijar.2016.77.83","article-title":"Physicochemical properties and hygienic quality of raw and reconstituted milk in the region of Guelma-Algeria","volume":"11","author":"Boudalia","year":"2016","journal-title":"Int. J. Agric. Res."},{"key":"ref_18","unstructured":"CODEX (Codex Alimentarius Commission) (2026, April 08). General Principles of Food Hygiene (CXC 1-1969), Available online: https:\/\/openknowledge.fao.org\/server\/api\/core\/bitstreams\/6866dc55-d2c0-48dd-a528-a4d634f1b0b4\/content."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-022-03214-7","article-title":"Assessment of hygiene practices and microbial safety of milk supplied by smallholder farmers to processors in selected counties in Kenya","volume":"54","author":"Mogotu","year":"2022","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_20","unstructured":"INAMHI (Instituto Nacional de Meteorolog\u00eda e Hidrolog\u00eda) (2026, March 05). Datos Meteorol\u00f3gicos Hist\u00f3ricos [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.inamhi.gob.ec."},{"key":"ref_21","unstructured":"R Core Team (2024). R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R Foundation for Statistical Computing. Available online: https:\/\/www.r-project.org\/."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"Posit Team (2024). RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R, Posit Software, PBC. Available online: https:\/\/posit.co\/."},{"key":"ref_23","unstructured":"Fox, J., and Weisberg, S. (2019). An R Companion to Applied Regression, Sage. [3rd ed.]. Available online: https:\/\/www.john-fox.ca\/Companion\/."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickham, H. (2016). Ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis, Springer. Available online: https:\/\/cran.r-project.org\/package=ggplot2.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-24277-4_9"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.S0022-0302(80)82959-6","article-title":"An optimum transformation for somatic cell concentration in milk","volume":"63","author":"Ali","year":"1980","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Paliz Acosta, C., Rodr\u00edguez-Fonseca, B., and Losada, T. (2025, January 17\u201321). Modulation of rainfall patterns and extreme events in Ecuador under multidecadal ENSO influence. Proceedings of the 12th European Conference on Severe Storms, Utrecht, The Netherlands.","DOI":"10.5194\/ecss2025-191"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Barbosa, V.V., Souza, W.M., Galv\u00edncio, J.D., and Sobral, M.C. (2018). Influ\u00eancia da variabilidade clim\u00e1tica na produ\u00e7\u00e3o de leite na regi\u00e3o semi\u00e1rida do nordeste do Brasil. Rev. Bras. Climatol., 23.","DOI":"10.5380\/abclima.v23i0.58007"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Song, Y., Lawlor, K.B., and Witten, T.A. (2020). Local daily temperature averaging reveals semiannual climate cycles. arXiv."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.4314\/sajas.v55i1.02","article-title":"Heat stress in dairy cows: A review of abiotic and biotic factors, with reference to the subtropics","volume":"55","author":"Erasmus","year":"2025","journal-title":"S. Afr. J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silva de Souza, J., Costa Castro, M.L., Rojas dos Santos, M.G., Silva Ara\u00fajo, M.D.D., and Francisco dos Santos, J. (2021). Conforto t\u00e9rmico de vacas leiteiras na Amaz\u00f4nia: Revis\u00e3o de literatura. Arq. Ci\u00eanc. Vet. Zool UNIPAR, 24.","DOI":"10.25110\/arqvet.v24i2cont.2021.8717"},{"key":"ref_31","first-page":"146","article-title":"Seasonal prevalence of major mastitis pathogens isolated from crossbred cow milk samples in sub-tropical India","volume":"40","author":"Tiwari","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J. Anim. Prod. Manag."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bokharaeian, M., Toghdory, A., Ghoorchi, T., Ghassemi Nejad, J., and Esfahani, I.J. (2023). Quantitative associations between season, month, and temperature-humidity index with milk yield, composition, somatic cell counts, and microbial load: A comprehensive study across ten dairy farms over an annual cycle. Animals, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani13203205"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Costa, D.A., Santos, V.M., Oliveira, A.V.D., Souza, C.L., Moreira, G.R., Rosa, B.L., Reis, E.M.B., and Queiroz, A.M. (2023). Efeito da sazonalidade sobre as respostas fisiol\u00f3gicas e produtivas de vacas leiteiras mesti\u00e7as ao clima amaz\u00f4nico equatorial. Cienc. Anim. Bras., 24.","DOI":"10.1590\/1809-6891v24e-73559p"},{"key":"ref_34","first-page":"131","article-title":"Estimaci\u00f3n del \u00edndice de temperatura humedad (ITH) para sistemas de producci\u00f3n bovina en Morona Santiago, resultado preliminar","volume":"32","author":"Congo","year":"2024","journal-title":"Arch. Latinoam. Prod. Anim."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reboita, M.S., Rocha, R.P., Souza, C.A., Baldoni, T.C., Silveira Silva, P.L.L., and Ferreira, G.W.S. (2022). Future projections of extreme precipitation climate indices over South America based on CORDEX-CORE multimodel ensemble. Atmosphere, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/atmos13091463"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1080\/09291016.2023.2284545","article-title":"Seasonal stability of raw bovine milk: A systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"55","author":"Garcia","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biol. Rhythm Res."},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.5433\/1679-0359.2020v41n4p1355","article-title":"Longitudinal retrospective study on the effect of season on milk production and composition in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil","volume":"41","author":"Sicheski","year":"2020","journal-title":"Semin. Cienc. Agrar."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maranatha, G., Pandarangga, P., Sobang, Y.U.L., and Samba, F.D. (2025). Forage nutrient fluctuations during the dry season: A case study of tropical grazing land in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Res. Ecol., 71\u201384.","DOI":"10.30564\/re.v7i4.9954"},{"key":"ref_39","unstructured":"Cisneros Aguirre, C.F. (2025). Calidad Composicional Higi\u00e9nica y Sanitaria de Leche Bovina en Unidades Productivas de Peque\u00f1os y Medianos Productores de Leche. [Thesis, Universidad Polit\u00e9cnica Salesiana]. Available online: https:\/\/dspace.ups.edu.ec\/handle\/123456789\/30144."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"skac406","DOI":"10.1093\/jas\/skac406","article-title":"Herd and animal factors affect the variability of total and differential somatic cell count in bovine milk","volume":"101","author":"Stocco","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1590\/1678-4162-10185","article-title":"Frequency of microorganisms isolated at different stages of lactation and milk production loss associated with somatic cell count and mastitis-causing pathogens","volume":"71","author":"Costa","year":"2019","journal-title":"Arq. Bras. Med. Vet. Zootec."},{"key":"ref_42","unstructured":"(2012). Leche Cruda. Requisitos. Norma T\u00e9cnica Ecuatoriana [Internet] (Standard No. NTE INEN 9:2012). Available online: https:\/\/www.normalizacion.gob.ec."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"888","DOI":"10.1080\/00103624.2023.2285950","article-title":"Sensitivity of microbiological properties of a Rhodic Ferralsol in response to management and environmental variables in subtropical Brazil","volume":"55","author":"Sobucki","year":"2023","journal-title":"Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal."},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1097\/NT.0000000000000401","article-title":"Food system sustainability: A dairy perspective","volume":"55","author":"Miller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nutr. Today"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1083","DOI":"10.24188\/recia.v17.n1.2025.1083","article-title":"Caracter\u00edsticas composicionales y microbiol\u00f3gicas de la leche de vaca en sistemas de doble prop\u00f3sito del Piedemonte Llanero, Colombia","volume":"17","author":"Rangel","year":"2025","journal-title":"Rev. Colomb. Cienc. Anim. Recia"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Priyashantha, H. (2025). World dairy system sustainability: A milk quality perspective. Front. Sustain. Resour. Manag., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fsrma.2025.1572962"},{"key":"ref_47","unstructured":"Papanastasiou, D.K., Panagakis, P., Anestis, V., Bartzanas, T., Skoufos, I., Tzora, A., and Kittas, C. (2018). Environmental conditions, potential heat-stress state and their relations in a sheep barn under hot climate. CIGR J., 20, Available online: https:\/\/cigrjournal.org\/index.php\/Ejounral\/article\/view\/4913."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2721","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2024-25357","article-title":"Factors influencing somatic cell count and leukocyte composition in cow milk: A field study","volume":"108","author":"Mondini","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"108400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.soilbio.2021.108400","article-title":"The mechanisms underpinning microbial resilience to drying and rewetting\u2014A model analysis","volume":"162","author":"Manzoni","year":"2021","journal-title":"Soil Biol. Biochem."},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.23910\/1.2022.2665a","article-title":"Association between meteorological variables and milk yield traits in crossbred dairy cattle under subtropical climate","volume":"13","author":"Ali","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Bio-Resour. Stress Manag."},{"key":"ref_51","first-page":"e9386","article-title":"Influence of management practices on the development of subclinical mastitis in smallholder dairy farms in the Inhamuns region, Cear\u00e1, Brazil","volume":"23","author":"Carvalho","year":"2025","journal-title":"Obs. Econ. Latinoam."},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e20190130","DOI":"10.37496\/rbz4920190130","article-title":"Effectiveness of milking management practices for SCC and TBC levels in milk","volume":"49","author":"Daneluz","year":"2020","journal-title":"Rev. Bras. Zootec."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1017\/S0022029919000347","article-title":"Microbiological quality of milk from farms to milk powder manufacture: An industrial case study","volume":"86","author":"Paludetti","year":"2019","journal-title":"J. Dairy. Res."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hohmann, M.F., Wente, N., Zhang, Y., and Kr\u00f6mker, V. (2020). Bacterial load of the teat apex skin and associated factors at herd level. Animals, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani10091647"},{"key":"ref_55","unstructured":"Nicolosi, D.M. (2022). Evaluation of the Immunological Status in Clinically Healthy and Subclinically Infected Bovine Mammary Glands. [Ph.D. Thesis, G\u00f6ttingen University]."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"L13703","DOI":"10.1029\/2005GL022722","article-title":"Contemporary climate change in the Amazon","volume":"32","author":"Chagnon","year":"2005","journal-title":"Geophys. Res. Lett."},{"key":"ref_57","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Oliveira, C.P., Sousa, F.C., Silva, A.L., Schultz, \u00c9.B., Londo\u00f1o, R.I.V., and Souza, P.A. (2025). Heat stress in dairy cows: Impacts, identification, and mitigation strategies\u2014A review. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15020249"},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.33545\/26174693.2024.v8.i6Sb.1270","article-title":"Dynamics of somatic cell count in dairy cattle across lactation stages: Implications for udder health and milk quality","volume":"8","author":"Nabi","year":"2024","journal-title":"Int. J. Adv. Biochem. Res."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Timlin, M., Tobin, J.T., Brodkorb, A., Murphy, E.G., Dillon, P., Hennessy, D., O\u2019Donovan, M., Pierce, K.M., O\u2019Callaghan, T.F., and O\u2019Callaghan, T.F. (2021). The impact of seasonality in pasture-based production systems on milk composition and functionality. Foods, 10.","DOI":"10.3390\/foods10030607"},{"key":"ref_60","first-page":"e11313","article-title":"Composi\u00e7\u00e3o do leite como indicador metab\u00f3lico-nutricional em vacas leiteiras \u00e0 pasto","volume":"23","author":"Silva","year":"2025","journal-title":"Obs. Econ. Latinoam."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1007\/s11250-025-04294-x","article-title":"Management factors affecting milk yield, composition, and quality on smallholder dairy farms","volume":"57","author":"Mukasafari","year":"2025","journal-title":"Trop. Anim. Health Prod."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qin, D., Gao, R., and Ji, D. (2025). Synergy between genetics and nutrition: A systematic review of factors affecting performance in dairy cows. Front. Anim. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fanim.2025.1653052"},{"key":"ref_63","unstructured":"(FAO) Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2026, March 05). The State of Food and Agriculture 2021: Making Agrifood Systems More Resilient to Shocks and Stresses [Internet], Available online: https:\/\/www.fao.org\/3\/cb4476en\/cb4476en.pdf."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Quarshie, P.T., Antwi-Agyei, P., and Fraser, E. (2026, April 07). Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices for Sustainable Food Systems and Rural Livelihoods Nexus in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Conceptual Review and Analytical Framework. Available online: https:\/\/osf.io\/preprints\/osf\/9f6sq_v1.","DOI":"10.31219\/osf.io\/9f6sq"},{"key":"ref_65","unstructured":"Kassambara, A. (2026, April 07). Practical Guide to Principal Component Methods in R: PCA, MCA, FAMD, MFA, HCPC, Factoextra. STHDA. Available online: https:\/\/www.sthda.com\/english\/wiki\/practical-guide-to-principal-component-methods-in-r."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Babiciu, D.E., Beteg, F.I., Cenariu, M., Blaga Petrean, A., M\u00e2rza, S.M., Lazar, E.A., and Popescu, S. (2025). Integrative multivariate analysis of milk biomarkers, productive performance, and animal welfare indicators in dairy cows. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15213202"},{"key":"ref_67","first-page":"e8419","article-title":"Influ\u00eancia do manejo sobre as caracter\u00edsticas do leite em sistemas de produ\u00e7\u00e3o leiteira","volume":"22","author":"Defante","year":"2024","journal-title":"Obs. Econ. Latinoam."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/10\/1458\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,11]],"date-time":"2026-05-11T11:32:44Z","timestamp":1778499164000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/10\/1458"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]},"references-count":67,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16101458"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16101458","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,9]]}}}