{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T13:08:06Z","timestamp":1779368886336,"version":"3.53.0"},"reference-count":74,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1779321600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The use of near-infrared (NIR) fluorescence imaging has become increasingly widespread in the intraoperative management of human cancer patients, with diverse applications that enhance the visualization of tumors, metastatic lesions, draining lymph nodes, and critical anatomy. In recent years, the adoption of NIR imaging in small animal surgical oncology has grown, with reported applications including nonselective and selective tumor imaging as well as sentinel lymph node (SLN) mapping for staging and surgical guidance. Despite these advances, clinical use in veterinary patients remains in its early stages, and further work is needed to define indications, optimize protocols, and determine its impact on outcomes. This review summarizes the current applications of NIR imaging in companion animal oncologic surgery, including techniques for dye administration, imaging agents, and reported clinical uses across tumor types. Key limitations are discussed, including limited tissue penetration, lack of tumor specificity with commonly used agents such as indocyanine green, variability in protocols, and limited data in certain species. Emerging technologies, including targeted fluorescent agents and advanced imaging approaches, are also highlighted. Overall, NIR imaging represents a promising adjunct in small animal surgical oncology, though further study and standardization are needed to support broader clinical integration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16101563","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]],"date-time":"2026-05-21T12:06:07Z","timestamp":1779365167000},"page":"1563","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Near-Infrared Imaging in Small Animal Surgical Oncology: Current Applications and Future Directions"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9714-1579","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maureen A.","family":"Griffin","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, Colorado State University College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, 300 W Drake Rd, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1111\/vsu.13332","article-title":"Near-infrared imaging and optical coherence tomography for intraoperative visualization of tumors","volume":"49","author":"Holt","year":"2020","journal-title":"Vet. 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