{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T03:58:31Z","timestamp":1780891111463,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":35,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1780704000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Animal tuberculosis caused by mycobacteria of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex (MTBC) represents a significant challenge to both public and animal health. Although eradication programs focus predominantly on cattle, small ruminants, especially goats, may play a relevant role as reservoirs. This study aimed to characterize tuberculosis cases in small ruminants in Portugal diagnosed at the national reference laboratory for Tuberculosis (Instituto Nacional de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Agr\u00e1ria e Veterin\u00e1ria) over the period from April 2012 to July 2023. In this study, samples from 79 animals suspected of TB (64 goats and 15 sheep) were analyzed by integrating histopathology; bacteriology; and, when applicable, PCR results, thereby allowing the distribution by species to be described, MTBC agents to be identified, and diagnostic agreement to be assessed. Of these samples, 29 positive cases (36.7%) were identified, all of them in goats (45.3% of goats tested), whereas no cases were confirmed in sheep. Mycobacterium caprae was the most frequently identified species (89.7%), followed by Mycobacterium bovis (10.3%). Geographic distribution was concentrated in the Alentejo (48.3%) and Norte (44.8%) regions, where 93.1% of cases occurred. Topographical analysis of lesions revealed respiratory tract involvement (lung and\/or thoracic lymph nodes) in 82.7% of positive cases, with gross patterns including caseous\/caseocalcified lesions (n = 11), necrosis (n = 9), and nodular granulomatous lesions (n = 10). Agreement between histopathology and bacteriology was 81.5%. Parasitic coinfections were observed in 24.1% of positive cases, complicating histopathological interpretation. The results of this study indicate goats, as opposed to sheep, as non-negligible reservoirs of TB, suggesting species-level differences that warrant targeted investigation. The predominance of respiratory lesions and the detection of extensive cavitary forms indicate potential aerogenous transmission with implications for multi-host systems. Diagnostic discordance and parasitic interference reinforce the need for combined testing methodologies. It is therefore advisable to consider the integration of goats into tuberculosis surveillance and control programs, with greater relevance in Alentejo and Norte.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16121755","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T02:32:46Z","timestamp":1780885966000},"page":"1755","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Tuberculosis in Small Ruminants in Portugal: A Retrospective Laboratory-Based Study (2012\u20132023)"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Handreza Junqueira","family":"Cobra","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Animal and Veterinary Research Center (CECAV), Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2673-2758","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Leonor","family":"Orge","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal and Veterinary Research Center (CECAV), Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Agr\u00e1ria e Veterin\u00e1ria (INIAV), 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9610-5760","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paula","family":"Mendon\u00e7a","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Agr\u00e1ria e Veterin\u00e1ria (INIAV), 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7832-6292","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Paulo","family":"Carvalho","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Instituto Nacional de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o Agr\u00e1ria e Veterin\u00e1ria (INIAV), 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8588-7071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Madalena","family":"Vieira-Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Veterinary Sciences, Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Animal and Veterinary Research Center (CECAV), Universidade de Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2014.05.015","article-title":"Tuberculosis in domestic animal species","volume":"97","author":"Pesciaroli","year":"2014","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) (2014). Statement on a conceptual framework for bovine tuberculosis. EFSA J., 12, 3711.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2014.3711"},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"World Health Organization (2017). Roadmap for Zoonotic Tuberculosis, World Health Organization. Available online: https:\/\/www.who.int\/publications\/i\/item\/9789241513043."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santos, N., Richomme, C., Nunes, T., Vicente, J., Alves, P.C., de la Fuente, J., Correia-Neves, M., Boschiroli, M.-L., Delahay, R., and Gort\u00e1zar, C. (2020). Quantification of the animal tuberculosis multi-host community offers insights for control. Pathogens, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens9060421"},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2022.100451","article-title":"Bovine tuberculosis\u2014Analysis of 10-year cases and impact of visual inspection in the surveillance at the slaughterhouse in Portugal","volume":"15","author":"Cardoso","year":"2022","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"995","DOI":"10.1017\/S0950268816003095","article-title":"Efficiency of slaughterhouse surveillance for the detection of bovine tuberculosis in cattle in Northern Ireland","volume":"145","author":"Gordon","year":"2017","journal-title":"Epidemiol. Infect."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"European Food Safety Authority, and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024). The European Union One Health 2023 Zoonoses report. EFSA J., 22, e9106.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2024.9106"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1344","DOI":"10.3201\/eid3107.250031","article-title":"Spatiotemporal Distribution and Clinical Characteristics of Zoonotic Tuberculosis, Spain, 2018\u20132022","volume":"31","author":"Roy","year":"2025","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"663","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.101347","article-title":"Evidence of goats acting as domestic reservoirs of bovine tuberculosis","volume":"172","author":"Napp","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100993","DOI":"10.1016\/j.onehlt.2025.100993","article-title":"Zoonotic tuberculosis in Catalonia, Spain: Phylogenetic insights into Mycobacterium bovis and M. caprae transmission at the human-livestock interface","volume":"20","author":"Vidal","year":"2025","journal-title":"One Health"},{"key":"ref_11","unstructured":"Dire\u00e7\u00e3o-Geral de Alimenta\u00e7\u00e3o e Veterin\u00e1ria (2026, February 20). Programas de Erradica\u00e7\u00e3o Para Doen\u00e7as da Categoria b de Animais Terrestres Baseados na Concess\u00e3o do Estatuto de Indemnes ao N\u00edvel do Estabelecimento\u2014Portugal, Available online: https:\/\/www.dgav.pt\/animais\/conteudo\/animais-de-producao\/bovinos\/saude-animal-em-bovinos\/planos-de-controlo-oficial-e-relatorios\/."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.163.4.127","article-title":"TB in goats caused by Mycobacterium bovis","volume":"163","author":"Crawshaw","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"469","DOI":"10.24425\/pjvs.2022.142032","article-title":"Suspicion of bovine tuberculosis in sheep in the Ma\u0142opolskie Voivodeship (southern Poland)","volume":"25","author":"Didkowska","year":"2022","journal-title":"Pol. J. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Juste, R.A., Fern\u00e1ndez-Veiga, L., Fuertes, M., Fern\u00e1ndez-Ortiz de Murua, I., Cardona, G., Geijo, M.V., Garrido, J.M., and Sevilla, I.A. (2023). A humoral diagnostic test outperforms cellular tests in a farm with a latent tuberculosis outbreak caused by a new Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex spoligotype that affected sheep but not goats. Front. Vet. Sci., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2023.1310205"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"869146","DOI":"10.1155\/2012\/869146","article-title":"Tuberculosis in goats and sheep in Afar Pastoral Region of Ethiopia and isolation of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from goat","volume":"2012","author":"Kassa","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"430","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2013.04.019","article-title":"Tuberculosis transmission by Mycobacterium bovis in a mixed cattle and goat herd","volume":"95","author":"Zanardi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Di Marco Lo Presti, V., Capucchio, M.T., Fiasconaro, M., Puleio, R., La Mancusa, F., Romeo, G., Biondo, C., Ippolito, D., Guarda, F., and Ciarello, F.P. (2022). Mycobacterium bovis tuberculosis in two goat farms in multi-host ecosystems in Sicily (Italy): Epidemiological, diagnostic, and regulatory considerations. Pathogens, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/pathogens11060649"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"532","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1703.100618","article-title":"Mycobacterium caprae infection in livestock and wildlife, Spain","volume":"17","author":"Bezos","year":"2011","journal-title":"Emerg. Infect. Dis."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1136\/vr.c1678","article-title":"Tuberculosis in goats","volume":"166","author":"Quintas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Vet. Rec."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1501","DOI":"10.1586\/14787210.2014.974560","article-title":"Mycobacterium caprae infection in humans","volume":"12","author":"Prodinger","year":"2014","journal-title":"Expert Rev. Anti Infect. Ther."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4984","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.10.4984-4992.2005","article-title":"Characterization of Mycobacterium caprae isolates from Europe by mycobacterial interspersed repetitive unit genotyping","volume":"43","author":"Prodinger","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_22","unstructured":"World Organisation for Animal Health (2024). Guidelines for the Control of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Livestock, World Organisation for Animal Health."},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1186\/s13620-023-00241-0","article-title":"Bovine tuberculosis in Spain, is it really the final countdown?","volume":"76","author":"Bezos","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ir. Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Reis, A.C., Salvador, L.C.M., Robbe-Austerman, S., Tenreiro, R., Botelho, A., Albuquerque, T., and Cunha, M.V. (2021). Whole genome sequencing refines knowledge on the population structure of Mycobacterium bovis from a multi-host tuberculosis system. Microorganisms, 9.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms9081585"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2253340","DOI":"10.1080\/22221751.2023.2253340","article-title":"Genomic epidemiology sheds light on the emergence and spread of Mycobacterium bovis Eu2 clonal complex in Portugal","volume":"12","author":"Pereira","year":"2023","journal-title":"Emerg. Microbes Infect."},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"795165","DOI":"10.4061\/2011\/795165","article-title":"Multihost tuberculosis: Insights from the Portuguese control program","volume":"2011","author":"Cunha","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. Med. Int."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcpa.2010.12.006","article-title":"Microscopical and immunological features of tuberculoid granulomata and cavitary pulmonary tuberculosis in naturally infected goats","volume":"145","author":"Sanchez","year":"2011","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1872","DOI":"10.1128\/CVI.05323-11","article-title":"Experimental model of tuberculosis in the domestic goat after endobronchial infection with Mycobacterium caprae","volume":"18","author":"Vordermeier","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Vaccine Immunol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2011.02.010","article-title":"Tuberculosis in goats: Assessment of current in vivo cell-mediated and antibody-based diagnostic assays","volume":"191","author":"Bezos","year":"2012","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110485","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2025.110485","article-title":"Evaluation of techniques for post-mortem diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infection in goats","volume":"304","author":"Romero","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Larenas-Mu\u00f1oz, F., S\u00e1nchez-Carvajal, J.M., Gal\u00e1n-Rela\u00f1o, \u00c1., Ruedas-Torres, I., Vera-Salmoral, E., G\u00f3mez-Gasc\u00f3n, L., Maldonado, A., Carrasco, L., Tarradas, C., and Luque, I. (2022). The Role of Histopathology as a Complementary Diagnostic Tool in the Monitoring of Bovine Tuberculosis. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.816190"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6501","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02032-13","article-title":"Comparison of PCR versus culture for detection of Mycobacterium bovis after experimental inoculation of various matrices held under environmental conditions for extended periods","volume":"79","author":"Adams","year":"2013","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"525","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1439-0450.1988.tb00527.x","article-title":"Experimental infection of sheep and goats with Muellerius capillaris (Protostrongylidae, Nematoda)","volume":"35","year":"1988","journal-title":"J. Vet. Med. B"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Aires Pereira, M., Mega, C., Garc\u00eas, A., Santos, C., Vasconcelos-N\u00f3brega, C., Melo, C., Ros\u00e1rio Coelho, C., Coelho, C., Henriques, D., and Esteves, F. (2026, February 19). Parasitas Pulmonares em Pequenos Ruminantes: Mais Conhecimento, Melhor Diagn\u00f3stico. Available online: https:\/\/repositorio.ipv.pt\/entities\/publication\/eb1d0b9b-3551-4384-91e5-c759af296692."},{"key":"ref_35","unstructured":"Ballweber, L.R. (2026, January 20). Lungworm Infection in Animals. Merck Veterinary Manual. Available online: https:\/\/www.merckvetmanual.com\/respiratory-system\/lungworm-infection\/lungworm-infection-in-animals."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/12\/1755\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,8]],"date-time":"2026-06-08T03:11:01Z","timestamp":1780888261000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/12\/1755"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]]},"references-count":35,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16121755"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16121755","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]]}}}