{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T18:42:23Z","timestamp":1785436943540,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":83,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1781481600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"National Natural Science Foundation of China","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["32260861"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32260861"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["32260861"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["32260861"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01h0zpd94","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100012259","name":"Major Discipline Academic and Technical Leaders Training Program of Jiangxi Province","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20243BCE51165"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20243BCE51165"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100012259","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004479","name":"Jiangxi Provincial Natural Science Foundation","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["20232BAB215051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20232BAB215051"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004479","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"award":["20232BAB215051"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["20232BAB215051"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04aqat463","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Salivary microbiota constitutes complex microbial assemblages and acts as a source of reliable non-invasive biomarkers for evaluating growth, metabolism, and health status of farm animals. This review explores the research value of saliva and its resident microbes in livestock health monitoring. We summarize saliva composition, physiological functions, and sampling protocols for pigs, cattle, sheep, and goats. Core microbial taxa of monogastric and ruminant species are outlined, together with their roles in digestion, rumen fermentation, growth, and stress responses. We also present classic salivary diagnostic indicators and the impacts of oral bacteria on common livestock diseases. Current research is limited by undefined causal relationships, low diagnostic specificity, and heterogeneous technical standards, and thus fails to support accurate diagnosis at the individual animal level. Future studies should elucidate microbial interaction mechanisms, standardize experimental protocols, and establish multi-index evaluation models. This review advances theoretical research and promotes the practical application of salivary microbiota in precision livestock farming.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16121840","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T08:57:58Z","timestamp":1781513878000},"page":"1840","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["The Salivary Microbiota\u2013Host Nexus: Unraveling Opportunities for Non-Invasive Monitoring of Health and Productivity in Farm Animals"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Jing","family":"Ge","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kehui","family":"Ouyang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mingren","family":"Qu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9921-2094","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Qinghua","family":"Qiu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jiangxi Province Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition and Feed, College of Animal Science and Technology, Jiangxi Agricultural University, Nanchang 330045, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1067\/mpr.2001.113778","article-title":"A review of saliva: Normal composition, flow, and function","volume":"85","author":"Humphrey","year":"2001","journal-title":"J. Prosthet. Dent."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"781","DOI":"10.1128\/CMR.00021-13","article-title":"Salivary biomarkers: Toward future clinical and diagnostic utilities","volume":"26","author":"Yoshizawa","year":"2013","journal-title":"Clin. Microbiol. Rev."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5721","DOI":"10.1128\/JCM.43.11.5721-5732.2005","article-title":"Defining the normal bacterial flora of the oral cavity","volume":"43","author":"Aas","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. Clin. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1186\/gm383","article-title":"Salivary biomarker development using genomic, proteomic and metabolomic approaches","volume":"4","author":"Bonne","year":"2012","journal-title":"Genome Med."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"323","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1384.015","article-title":"Human saliva proteome analysis","volume":"1098","author":"Hu","year":"2007","journal-title":"Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"988","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2005.063206","article-title":"Characterization of RNA in saliva","volume":"52","author":"Park","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Chen, Y., Li, J., and Yang, M. (2025). Editorial: Unlocking the power of gut microbiota to improving health and welfare in non-ruminant livestock. Front. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1674586"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Edwards, J.E., Kim, E.J., Davies, D.R., Hanafy, R., and Kingston-Smith, A.H. (2023). Ruminant salivary microbes: Passenger or player in the rumen?. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11102390"},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.animal.2021.100267","article-title":"Short communication: Saliva and salivary components affect goat rumen fermentation in short-term batch incubations","volume":"15","author":"Belanche","year":"2021","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.2174\/138920208783884900","article-title":"Salivary genomics, transcriptomics and proteomics: The emerging concept of the oral ecosystem and their use in the early diagnosis of cancer and other diseases","volume":"9","author":"Csermely","year":"2008","journal-title":"Curr. Genom."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1601-0825.2002.02851.x","article-title":"Saliva and gastrointestinal functions of taste, mastication, swallowing and digestion","volume":"8","author":"Pedersen","year":"2002","journal-title":"Oral Dis."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1177\/154411130201300209","article-title":"The diagnostic applications of saliva\u2014A review","volume":"13","author":"Kaufman","year":"2002","journal-title":"Crit. Rev. Oral Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4251","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jprot.2012.05.007","article-title":"Saliva proteomics as an emerging, non-invasive tool to study livestock physiology, nutrition and diseases","volume":"75","author":"Lamy","year":"2012","journal-title":"J. Proteom."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"305","DOI":"10.1038\/sj.bdj.4807861","article-title":"Saliva: Its secretion, composition and functions","volume":"172","author":"Edgar","year":"1992","journal-title":"Br. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"335","DOI":"10.1515\/CCLM.2000.049","article-title":"Biochemical composition and electrolyte balance of \u201cunstimulated\u201d whole human saliva","volume":"38","author":"Rehak","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clin. Chem. Lab. Med."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"295","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1875-595X.2007.tb00135.x","article-title":"Saliva as a diagnostic fluid","volume":"57","author":"Samaranayake","year":"2007","journal-title":"Int. Dent. J."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.5005\/jp-journals-10005-1398","article-title":"Salivary proteins\u2014A barrier on enamel demineralization: An in vitro study","volume":"10","author":"Hegde","year":"2017","journal-title":"Int. J. Clin. Pediatr. Dent."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1021","DOI":"10.6026\/973206300181021","article-title":"A review on salivary constituents and their role in diagnostics","volume":"18","author":"Abdul","year":"2022","journal-title":"Bioinformation"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3917","DOI":"10.1016\/S0021-9258(18)62937-0","article-title":"The action pattern of porcine pancreatic alpha-amylase in relationship to the substrate binding site of the enzyme","volume":"245","author":"Robyt","year":"1970","journal-title":"J. Biol. Chem."},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lai, W.Y.W., Chua, J.W.M., Gill, S., and Brownlee, I.A. (2019). Analysis of the lipolytic activity of whole-saliva and site-specific secretions from the oral cavity of healthy adults. Nutrients, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu11010191"},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4119","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-54269-5","article-title":"A comparative study of the bacterial diversity and composition of nursery piglets\u2019 oral fluid, feces, and housing environment","volume":"14","author":"Buiatte","year":"2024","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Murase, K., Watanabe, T., Arai, S., Kim, H., Tohya, M., Ishida-Kuroki, K., V\u00f5, T.H., Nguy\u1ec5n, T.P.B., Nakagawa, I., and Osawa, R. (2019). Characterization of pig saliva as the major natural habitat of Streptococcus suis by analyzing oral, fecal, vaginal, and environmental microbiota. PLoS ONE, 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0215983"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dame-Teixeira, N., Deng, D., and Do, T. (2025). Positive role of saliva in the oral microbiome. Oral Microbiome: Symbiosis, Dysbiosis and Microbiome Interventions for Maintaining Oral and Systemic Health, Springer Nature Switzerland.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-031-79146-8"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brandtzaeg, P. (2013). Secretory IgA: Designed for anti-microbial defense. Front. Immunol., 4.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2013.00222"},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagakubo, D., and Kaibori, Y. (2023). Oral microbiota: The influences and interactions of saliva, IgA, and dietary factors in health and disease. Microorganisms, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/microorganisms11092307"},{"key":"ref_26","unstructured":"Patel, V.B. (2015). Salivary urea nitrogen as a biomarker for renal dysfunction. Biomarkers in Kidney Disease, Springer."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1373\/clinchem.2010.153767","article-title":"Diagnostic potential of saliva: Current state and future applications","volume":"57","author":"Pfaffe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Clin. Chem."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1111\/jpn.13815","article-title":"A pilot investigation on the effect of induced saliva flow on digestive parameters in sheep, and a comparison with cattle","volume":"107","author":"Zhang","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Anim. Physiol. Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"439","DOI":"10.1016\/S0749-0720(15)30794-5","article-title":"Ingestion and mastication of feed by dairy cattle","volume":"7","author":"Beauchemin","year":"1991","journal-title":"Vet. Clin. N. Am. Food Anim. Pract."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"383","DOI":"10.1079\/BJN19610048","article-title":"Saliva secretion and its relation to feeding in cattle: 2. The composition and rate of secretion of mixed saliva in the cow during rest","volume":"15","author":"Bailey","year":"1961","journal-title":"Br. J. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"S\u00e1nchez, J., Matas, M., Ib\u00e1\u00f1ez-L\u00f3pez, F., Hern\u00e1ndez, I., Sotillo, J., and Guti\u00e9rrez, A. (2022). The connection between stress and immune status in pigs: A first salivary analytical panel for disease differentiation. Front. Vet. Sci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2022.881435"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rubio, C., Mainau, E., Cer\u00f3n, J., Contreras Aguilar, M.D., Martinez-Subiela, S., Navarro, E., Tecles, F., Manteca, X., and Escribano, D. (2019). Biomarkers of oxidative stress in saliva in pigs: Analytical validation and changes in lactation. BMC Vet. Res., 15.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-019-1875-z"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7470","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.02385-15","article-title":"Buccal swabbing as a noninvasive method to determine bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic microbial community structures in the rumen","volume":"81","author":"Kittelmann","year":"2015","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"245","DOI":"10.1590\/S0103-84781997000200012","article-title":"A simple and rapid method for collecting saliva to assess sodium status in sheep","volume":"27","author":"Ortolani","year":"1997","journal-title":"Cienc. Rural"},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skarlupka, J., Cox, M., Steinberger, A., Sbardellati, D., McClure, J., Bickhart, D., Scheftgen, A., Zuniga-Chaves, I., Wolfe, L., and Paget, E. (2024). Oral swabs as a proxy for direct ruminal microbiome sampling in Holstein dairy cows is correlated with sample color. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1466375"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zheng, L., Shi, L., Wu, X., Hu, P., Zhang, B., Han, X., Wang, K., Li, X., Yang, F., and Wang, Y. (2024). Advances in research on pig salivary analytes: A window to reveal pig health and physiological status. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14030374"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1186\/s42523-021-00095-3","article-title":"Evolution of rumen and oral microbiota in calves is influenced by age and time of weaning","volume":"3","author":"Amin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Microbiome"},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1531","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-38049-6","article-title":"Evaluation of oral cavity DNA extraction methods on bacterial and fungal microbiota","volume":"9","author":"Rosenbaum","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cer\u00f3n, J.J., Contreras-Aguilar, M.D., Escribano, D., Mart\u00ednez-Mir\u00f3, S., L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00ednez, M.J., Ort\u00edn-Bustillo, A., Franco-Mart\u00ednez, L., Rubio, C.P., Mu\u00f1oz-Prieto, A., and Tvarijonaviciute, A. (2022). Basics for the potential use of saliva to evaluate stress, inflammation, immune system, and redox homeostasis in pigs. BMC Vet. Res., 18.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-022-03176-w"},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2761","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-024-10399-9","article-title":"Circadian rhythm of salivary and serum urea concentration in alpacas and sheep receiving diets with different levels of protein","volume":"48","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Papatsiros, V.G., Maragkakis, G., and Papakonstantinou, G.I. (2024). Stress biomarkers in pigs: Current insights and clinical application. Vet. Sci., 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci11120640"},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bot\u00eda, M., Llamas-Amor, E., Cer\u00f3n, J.J., Ramis-Vidal, G., L\u00f3pez-Juan, A.L., Bened\u00e9, J.L., Escribano, D., Mart\u00ednez-Subiela, S., and L\u00f3pez-Arjona, M. (2024). Cortisone in saliva of pigs: Validation of a new assay and changes after thermal stress. BMC Vet. Res., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-024-04195-5"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00ednez, M.J., Escribano, D., Ort\u00edn-Bustillo, A., Franco-Mart\u00ednez, L., Gonz\u00e1lez-Arostegui, L.G., Cer\u00f3n, J.J., and Rubio, C.P. (2022). Changes in biomarkers of redox status in saliva of pigs after an experimental sepsis induction. Antioxidants, 11.","DOI":"10.3390\/antiox11071380"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Contreras-Aguilar, M.D., Tvarijonaviciute, A., Monkeviciene, I., Mart\u00edn-Cuervo, M., Gonz\u00e1lez-Arostegui, L.G., Franco-Mart\u00ednez, L., Cer\u00f3n, J.J., Tecles, F., and Escribano, D. (2020). Characterization of total adenosine deaminase activity (ADA) and its isoenzymes in saliva and serum in health and inflammatory conditions in four different species: An analytical and clinical validation pilot study. BMC Vet. Res., 16.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-020-02574-2"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guti\u00e9rrez, A.M., De La Cruz-S\u00e1nchez, E., Montes, A., Sotillo, J., Guti\u00e9rrez-Panizo, C., Fuentes, P., Tornel, P.L., and Cabezas-Herrera, J. (2017). Easy and non-invasive disease detection in pigs by adenosine deaminase activity determinations in saliva. PLoS ONE, 12.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0179299"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-024-00368-8","article-title":"Salivary and serum haptoglobin, adenosine deaminase, and immunoglobulin G in growing pigs","volume":"10","author":"Piirainen","year":"2024","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_47","first-page":"40","article-title":"Guidelines for oral fluid-based surveillance of viral pathogens in swine","volume":"6","author":"Baum","year":"2020","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"207","DOI":"10.1038\/nature11234","article-title":"Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome","volume":"486","author":"Huttenhower","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zaura, E., Keijser, B.J., Huse, S.M., and Crielaard, W. (2009). Defining the healthy \u201ccore microbiome\u201d of oral microbial communities. BMC Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.1186\/1471-2180-9-259"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Ahmad, A.A., Yang, C., Zhang, J., Zheng, J., Liang, Z., Wang, F., Zhai, H., Qin, S., and Yang, F. (2024). Modulations in gastrointestinal microbiota during postpartum period fulfill energy requirements and maintain health of lactating Tibetan cattle. Front. Microbiol., 15.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2024.1369173"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Freitas, A., Gan, F., David, D., and Roesch, L. (2022). The microbiome shifts throughout the gastrointestinal tract of Bradford cattle in the Pampa biome. PLoS ONE, 17.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0279386"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1007\/s12088-024-01219-4","article-title":"Microbiota of saliva: A non-invasive diagnostic tool","volume":"64","author":"Shinde","year":"2024","journal-title":"Indian J. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e00861-20","DOI":"10.1128\/AEM.00861-20","article-title":"Validating the use of bovine buccal sampling as a proxy for the rumen microbiota using a time course and random forest classification approach","volume":"86","author":"Young","year":"2020","journal-title":"Appl. Environ. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Qiao, C., He, M., Wang, S., Jiang, X., Wang, F., Li, X., Tan, S., Chao, Z., Xin, W., and Gao, S. (2023). Multi-omics analysis reveals substantial linkages between the oral-gut microbiomes and inflamm-aging molecules in elderly pigs. Front. Microbiol., 14.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2023.1250891"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"853","DOI":"10.1007\/s00580-018-2856-5","article-title":"Erysipelas, the opportunistic zoonotic disease: History, epidemiology, pathology, and diagnosis\u2014A review","volume":"28","author":"Ugochukwu","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comp. Clin. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9111","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-34840-2","article-title":"The impact of vitamin D3 supplementation on the faecal and oral microbiome of dairy calves indoors or at pasture","volume":"13","author":"Vigors","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_57","unstructured":"Hameed, H., Mohiuddin, M., Younas, S., Luqman, M., Sarwar, M., Farukh, S., Noor, H., Aziz, M., and Hussain, R. (2025). Actinobacillosis: Wooden tongue disease, pathogenic mechanism and clinical management in livestock. Pathways of Infection: Zoonoses and Environmental Disease Transmission, Unique Scientific Publishers."},{"key":"ref_58","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"72","DOI":"10.1111\/tbed.12739","article-title":"Update on Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae\u2014Knowledge, gaps and challenges","volume":"65","author":"Sassu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Transbound. Emerg. Dis."},{"key":"ref_59","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Y., Liu, R., Lv, W., Xia, K., Lu, X., Gao, X., Miao, S., and Zhang, A. (2025). The conserved transcription factor PrlP modulates colonization and pathogenicity of Streptococcus suis in response to environmental stress. PLoS Pathog., 21.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1013314"},{"key":"ref_60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"356","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2009.12.020","article-title":"Proteomic analysis of porcine saliva","volume":"187","author":"Miller","year":"2011","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_61","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5881","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2024-24014","article-title":"The oral microbiome as a proxy for feed intake in dairy cattle","volume":"107","author":"Marcos","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_62","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Q., Cai, R., Huang, A., Wang, X., Qu, W., Shi, L., Li, C., and Yan, H. (2018). Comparison of oropharyngeal microbiota in healthy piglets and piglets with respiratory disease. Front. Microbiol., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2018.03218"},{"key":"ref_63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"382","DOI":"10.1111\/asj.13153","article-title":"Effects of forage source and particle size on chewing activity, ruminal pH, and saliva secretion in lactating Holstein cows","volume":"90","author":"Jiang","year":"2019","journal-title":"Anim. Sci. J."},{"key":"ref_64","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100895","DOI":"10.1016\/j.animal.2023.100895","article-title":"Multi-omics in vitro study of the salivary modulation of the goat rumen microbiome","volume":"17","author":"Belanche","year":"2023","journal-title":"Animal"},{"key":"ref_65","first-page":"2300","article-title":"Protective effect of Streptococcus salivarius K12 against Mycoplasma pneumoniae infection in mice","volume":"44","author":"Su","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. South. Med. Univ."},{"key":"ref_66","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2811","DOI":"10.2527\/1990.6892811x","article-title":"A review of the physiological significance of hypertonic body fluids on feed intake and ruminal function: Salivation, motility and microbes","volume":"68","author":"Carter","year":"1990","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5769","DOI":"10.2527\/jas.2013-6865","article-title":"Technical note: A method for quantification of saliva secretion and salivary flux of metabolites in dairy cows","volume":"91","author":"Storm","year":"2013","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_68","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mao, J., and Wang, L. (2025). Rumen acidosis in ruminants: A review of the effects of high-concentrate diets and the potential modulatory role of rumen foam. Front. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2025.1595615"},{"key":"ref_69","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"32","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-025-01162-4","article-title":"Ruminal-buccal microbiota transmission and their diagnostic roles in subacute rumen acidosis in dairy goats","volume":"16","author":"Liu","year":"2025","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_70","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"L\u00f3pez-Mart\u00ednez, M.J., Ornelas, M.A.S., Amarie, R.E., Manzanilla, E.G., Mart\u00ednez-Subiela, S., Tecles, F., Tvarijonaviciute, A., Escribano, D., Gonz\u00e1lez-Bulnes, A., and Cer\u00f3n, J.J. (2023). Changes in salivary biomarkers of stress, inflammation, redox status, and muscle damage due to Streptococcus suis infection in pigs. BMC Vet. Res., 19.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12917-023-03650-z"},{"key":"ref_71","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e0124521","DOI":"10.1128\/mra.01245-21","article-title":"Complete genome sequences of four Streptococcus parasuis strains obtained from saliva of domestic pigs in Japan","volume":"11","author":"Nomoto","year":"2022","journal-title":"Microbiol. Resour. Announc."},{"key":"ref_72","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Baumann, S., Euring, B., Harzer, M., Eibisch, M., Lindner, A., Vahlenkamp, T.W., and Heenemann, K. (2025). Development of a novel, non-invasive saliva sampling method for the detection of bovine respiratory viruses. Vet. Sci., 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/vetsci12070637"},{"key":"ref_73","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"De Lucia, A., Cawthraw, S., Davies, R., Smith, R.P., Bianco, C., Ostanello, F., and Martelli, F. (2019). Correlation of anti-Salmonella antibodies between serum and saliva samples collected from finisher pigs. Front. Vet. Sci., 6.","DOI":"10.3389\/fvets.2019.00489"},{"key":"ref_74","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3969","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2021-21115","article-title":"Subacute ruminal acidosis phenotypes in periparturient dairy cows differ in ruminal and salivary bacteria and in the in vitro fermentative activity of their ruminal microbiota","volume":"105","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_75","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, J., Wang, L., Wang, D., Bonser, S.P., Sun, F., Zhou, Y., Gao, Y., and Teng, X. (2012). Plants can benefit from herbivory: Stimulatory effects of sheep saliva on growth of Leymus chinensis. PLoS ONE, 7.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0029259"},{"key":"ref_76","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1111\/gfs.12016","article-title":"Animal saliva has stronger effects on plant growth than salivary components","volume":"69","author":"Li","year":"2014","journal-title":"Grass Forage Sci."},{"key":"ref_77","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104636","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2020.104636","article-title":"Salivary oxytocin in pigs, cattle, and goats during positive human-animal interactions","volume":"115","author":"Waiblinger","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychoneuroendocrinology"},{"key":"ref_78","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"00051","DOI":"10.1051\/bioconf\/20202700051","article-title":"Biotic and abiotic factors of bactericidal properties variability of ruminant saliva","volume":"27","author":"Gilmutdinov","year":"2020","journal-title":"BIO Web Conf."},{"key":"ref_79","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/jen.12427","article-title":"Tick saliva microbiomes isolated from engorged and partially fed adults of Haemaphysalis flava tick females","volume":"142","author":"He","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Appl. Entomol."},{"key":"ref_80","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"267","DOI":"10.1186\/s13071-024-06334-1","article-title":"Aedes albopictus saliva contains a richer microbial community than the midgut","volume":"17","author":"Onyango","year":"2024","journal-title":"Parasit. Vectors."},{"key":"ref_81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14567","DOI":"10.1038\/srep14567","article-title":"Rumen microbial community composition varies with diet and host, but a core microbiome is found across a wide geographical range","volume":"5","author":"Henderson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_82","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4875","DOI":"10.3168\/jds.2020-19142","article-title":"Dynamic changes in salivation, salivary composition, and rumen fermentation associated with duration of high-grain feeding in cows","volume":"104","author":"Petri","year":"2021","journal-title":"J. Dairy Sci."},{"key":"ref_83","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119","DOI":"10.4155\/bio-2018-0160","article-title":"Miniaturized sample preparation methods for saliva analysis","volume":"11","author":"Seidi","year":"2019","journal-title":"Bioanalysis"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/12\/1840\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]],"date-time":"2026-06-15T09:35:05Z","timestamp":1781516105000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/12\/1840"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]},"references-count":83,"journal-issue":{"issue":"12","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16121840"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16121840","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,15]]}}}