{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,30]],"date-time":"2026-07-30T12:59:13Z","timestamp":1785416353177,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":91,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]],"date-time":"2026-06-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782518400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology"},{"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/00r9k8q20","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education","award":["N N304335839"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N N304335839"]}]},{"award":["N N304335839"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["N N304335839"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/05dwvd537","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Urban-driven landscape fragmentation is a major factor contributing to amphibian population decline yet its genetic consequences remain incompletely understood. We examined the genetic structure and variability of the common toad (Bufo bufo) in Warsaw, Poland, using seven nuclear microsatellite loci and mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences (800 bp). Samples (N = 97) were collected from six breeding sites representing contrasting urban habitats on both banks of the Vistula River. Genetic analyses revealed low but significant population differentiation, elevated inbreeding coefficients, and a heterozygosity deficit despite relatively high effective population sizes. This pattern is consistent with post-fragmentation genetic inertia, in which demographic buffering temporarily maintains genetic diversity despite reduced connectivity. Consequently, contemporary genetic patterns may underestimate the extent of ecological isolation imposed by urban infrastructure. Mitochondrial analyses identified seven haplotypes, including six previously unreported, forming a star-like network topology indicative of a single postglacial colonization event. The Vistula River did not constitute a significant barrier to gene flow, based on pairwise FST and hierarchical AMOVA. Supervised feature selection (MCFS-ID) identified specific alleles and body mass as key discriminants among sites, suggesting emerging responses to local urban conditions. Our results indicate that urban common toad populations can retain substantial genetic variation despite fragmentation, although continued isolation may ultimately increase inbreeding and genetic drift.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16131983","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T02:16:44Z","timestamp":1782699404000},"page":"1983","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Genetic Inertia in Urban Populations of the Common Toad (Bufo bufo): Evidence from Nuclear and Mitochondrial DNA"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7374-2190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Sztencel-Jab\u0142onka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aleksandra G.","family":"Bilska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Polish Academy of Sciences, Jana Kazimierza 5, 01-248 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"Doctoral School of Molecular Medicine, Medical University of Lodz, Pl. Hallera 1, 90-647 Lodz, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barbara","family":"Bujalska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joanna","family":"Mazgajska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3714-1467","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tomasz D.","family":"Mazgajski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Veronika","family":"Hrabovcov\u00e1 Sl\u00e1dkovi\u010dov\u00e1","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Comenius University in Bratislava, Mlynsk\u00e1 Dolina, Ilkovi\u010dova 6, 842 15 Bratislava, Slovakia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4109-5205","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Zbigniew","family":"Borowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forest Research Institute, S\u0119kocin Stary, Braci Le\u015bnej nr 3, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0509-9604","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Anna","family":"Tereba","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forest Research Institute, S\u0119kocin Stary, Braci Le\u015bnej nr 3, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1269-6722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Michal J.","family":"Dabrowski","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Museum and Institute of Zoology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Twarda 51\/55, 00-818 Warsaw, Poland"},{"name":"Institute of Computer Science, Polish Academy of Sciences, Jana Kazimierza 5, 01-248 Warsaw, Poland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,27]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"883","DOI":"10.1641\/0006-3568(2002)052[0883:UBAC]2.0.CO;2","article-title":"Urbanization, biodiversity, and conservation","volume":"52","author":"McKinney","year":"2002","journal-title":"BioScience"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1150195","article-title":"Global change and the ecology of cities","volume":"319","author":"Grimm","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1038\/23876","article-title":"Metapopulation dynamics","volume":"396","author":"Hanski","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"487","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.ecolsys.34.011802.132419","article-title":"Effects of habitat fragmentation on biodiversity","volume":"34","author":"Fahrig","year":"2003","journal-title":"Annu. 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