{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T04:31:04Z","timestamp":1787027464036,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":60,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"13","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1782950400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100007414","name":"Qassim University","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["QU-APC-2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QU-APC-2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100007414","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["QU-APC-2026"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["QU-APC-2026"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/01wsfe280","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>The transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-\u03b2) superfamily regulates diverse biological processes, including proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis, tissue remodeling, and reproductive signaling across metazoans. Here, we performed a genome-wide characterization of the TGF-\u03b2 gene family in donkey (Equus asinus, ASM1607732v2) using comparative genomics and bioinformatics analyses, with horse (Equus caballus, EquCab3.0) as a reference to investigate evolutionary conservation and functional divergence. Genome assemblies and proteomes were retrieved from NCBI, and TGF-\u03b2 genes were identified using BLASTp and HMMER searches (Pfam PF00019), followed by phylogenetic, conserved motif, synteny, Ka\/Ks, mutation prediction, subcellular localization, and tissue-specific expression analyses. We identified 40 TGF-\u03b2 genes in donkeys, exceeding the numbers reported in several mammals, suggesting possible lineage-specific expansion or differential gene retention within Equidae. Phylogenetic and motif analyses demonstrated strong evolutionary conservation across the two principal clades (TGF-\u03b2-like and BMP-like). Four segmental duplications were identified, with Ka\/Ks ratios ranging from 0.28 to 0.43, indicating strong purifying selection on duplicated genes. Synteny analysis revealed extensive collinearity with the horse genome, supporting conserved equid genomic architecture. Comparative sequence analysis identified 160 amino acid variants, including 11 predicted deleterious mutations in key genes (GDF6, GDF9, GDF10, BMP15, and RGMA), suggesting potential functional divergence associated with reproductive and developmental pathways. Importantly, transcriptomic validation using publicly available donkey RNA-seq tissue expression data (NCBI BioProject: PRJNA1017964) revealed distinct tissue-specific expression patterns, with reproductive tissues (ovary and uterus) displaying enriched expression of TGF-\u03b2\/BMP signaling components, particularly TGFBR1, TGFBR2, TGFB1, BMP2, BMP4, and BMP7, while canonical fecundity genes (GDF9 and BMP15) exhibited ovary-associated expression. This receptor-dominant signaling profile may have a coordinated TGF-\u03b2 regulatory network underlying folliculogenesis, reproductive tissue remodeling, and fertility-related processes in donkeys. Subcellular localization predictions showed that most proteins (22\/40) were extracellularly localized, consistent with conserved signaling functions. Together, this study provides the first integrated genomic and tissue-expression atlas of the donkey TGF-\u03b2 superfamily, offering new insights into equid-specific evolutionary conservation, reproductive signaling, and functional divergence.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16132028","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]],"date-time":"2026-07-02T10:04:44Z","timestamp":1782986684000},"page":"2028","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Genome-Wide Characterization of the TGF-\u03b2 Gene Family in Donkey (Equus asinus) Reveals Lineage-Specific Gene Duplications and Deleterious Mutations"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Tanveer","family":"Nasir","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genetics & Bioinformatics, Faculty of Animal Production and Technology, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-5608-789X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Tariq","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing 210095, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3796-9590","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Mohamed","family":"Tharwat","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3720-2090","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Muhammad","family":"Safdar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Breeding & Genetics, Faculty of Animal Production and Technology, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan"},{"name":"Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, 70013 Heraklion, Crete, Greece"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yasmeen","family":"Junejo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Physiology & Biochemistry, Faculty of Biosciences, Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur 63100, Pakistan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7267-4301","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Fahad A.","family":"Alshanbari","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Medical Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Qassim University, Buraidah 51452, Saudi Arabia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"a021865","DOI":"10.1101\/cshperspect.a021865","article-title":"The discovery and early days of TGF-\u03b2: A historical perspective","volume":"8","author":"Moses","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cold Spring Harb. 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