{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T06:48:45Z","timestamp":1785739725692,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":235,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"15","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1785542400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Once regarded as a benign, clinically overlooked organism, Theileria orientalis has undergone a paradigm shift in its perceived status and is now recognised as a tick-borne haemoparasite of clinical and economic importance. Severe outbreaks characterised by haemolytic anaemia, reproductive losses, and mortality, primarily associated with the Ikeda and Chitose genotypes, have been increasingly reported in Australasia, Asia, and North America. In Europe and parts of Africa, however, the epidemiological status of T. orientalis remains poorly defined, despite increasing molecular evidence of circulation and reports of predominantly subclinical infections. The parasite is transmitted transstadially in ixodid ticks, with Haemaphysalis longicornis as the principal confirmed biological vector, although vector competence remains unverified for most suspected tick species. This narrative review was based on a comprehensive PubMed search from database inception up to the date of initial manuscript submission, supplemented by reference-list screening and targeted searches. This review synthesises current knowledge on taxonomy, life cycle, transmission, genetic diversity based on the major piroplasm surface protein gene, global epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, co-infections, production losses, diagnostics, and control strategies. Key gaps include limited understanding of the mechanisms driving erythrocyte destruction, insufficient experimental confirmation of vector competence, absence of licensed vaccines, and incomplete epidemiological data in several regions. Future research priorities are discussed in the context of climate change and the expanding geographic distribution of tick vectors.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16152348","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,3]],"date-time":"2026-08-03T06:17:40Z","timestamp":1785737860000},"page":"2348","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["From Benign Parasite to Emerging Pathogen: A Review of Theileria orientalis in Ruminants"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0005-4562-6554","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria","family":"Fel\u00edcio","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Largo dos Colegiais 2, 7004-516 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"IIFA\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e forma\u00e7\u00e3o Avan\u00e7ada, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Pal\u00e1cio do Vimioso, Largo Marqu\u00eas de Marialva, Apartado 94, 7002-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2433-6487","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sara Tudela","family":"Z\u00faquete","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Largo dos Colegiais 2, 7004-516 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"IIFA\u2014Instituto de Investiga\u00e7\u00e3o e forma\u00e7\u00e3o Avan\u00e7ada, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Pal\u00e1cio do Vimioso, Largo Marqu\u00eas de Marialva, Apartado 94, 7002-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"CIISA\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"AL4AnimalS\u2014Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"FMV\u2014Faculdade de Medicina Veterin\u00e1ria, Universidade Lus\u00f3fona\u2014Centro Universit\u00e1rio de Lisboa, Campo Grande, N.\u00b0 376, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7369-2883","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"In\u00eas L. 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Box 2458, Angola"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2168-0511","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia","family":"Nolasco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIISA\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"AL4AnimalS\u2014Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"Escola Superior de Sa\u00fade de Lisboa, Instituto Polit\u00e9cnico de Lisboa, 1990-096 Lisboa, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-0271-0412","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Pedro","family":"Caetano","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Largo dos Colegiais 2, 7004-516 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Medicina Veterin\u00e1ria, Escola de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologias, Universidade de \u00c9vora, 7002-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Afonso P.","family":"Basto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIISA\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"AL4AnimalS\u2014Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2128-3818","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Ludovina","family":"Padre","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"MED Mediterranean Institute for Agriculture, Environment and Development & CHANGE Global Change and Sustainability Institute, Universidade de \u00c9vora, Largo dos Colegiais 2, 7004-516 \u00c9vora, Portugal"},{"name":"Departamento de Medicina Veterin\u00e1ria, Escola de Ci\u00eancias e Tecnologias, Universidade de \u00c9vora, 7002-554 \u00c9vora, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8398-6754","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexandre","family":"Leit\u00e3o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"CIISA\u2014Centre for Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Lisbon, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"},{"name":"AL4AnimalS\u2014Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1300-477 Lisbon, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijppaw.2014.12.006","article-title":"A Review of Theileria Diagnostics and Epidemiology","volume":"4","author":"Mans","year":"2015","journal-title":"Int. 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