{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T09:24:33Z","timestamp":1787217873326,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"16","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787011200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Although the role of the mammalian hippocampus in representing locomotor speed has been widely investigated, how the avian hippocampus represents continuous flight speed under free-flight conditions in the outdoor environment remains unclear. In this study, we used homing pigeons as a model system and synchronously recorded hippocampal formation (HF) local field potentials (LFPs), global positioning system (GPS) trajectories, and inertial measurement unit (IMU) data during natural homing flights. We aimed to determine whether and how the avian HF encodes flight speed. Flight-speed-related neural features were extracted from both frequency-domain and time-domain signals, including the 50\u201370 Hz power spectral density (PSD) ratio and theta-demodulated amplitude (DAmp). We then constructed models for discrete flight-speed state decoding and continuous flight-speed prediction. The results showed that the 50\u201370 Hz PSD ratio in the HF was significantly negatively correlated with flight speed, whereas DAmp was significantly positively correlated with flight speed. Both features exhibited consistent speed-related trends across different spatial release sites. Support vector machine (SVM)-based classification showed that PSD, DAmp, and their combined features could effectively decode four flight-speed states, including non-flight, low-speed, medium-speed, and high-speed states, with the combined features achieving the best performance. Further Gaussian process regression (GPR) analysis demonstrated that the combined features predicted continuous flight speed more accurately than either single feature. These findings provide evidence that the avian hippocampal formation encodes continuous flight speed during natural navigation through the complementary integration of frequency-domain and time-domain features, extending the known role of the avian hippocampal formation from static spatial mapping to dynamic self-motion representation.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16162569","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]],"date-time":"2026-08-18T08:08:41Z","timestamp":1787040521000},"page":"2569","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Hippocampal Local Field Potentials Encode Continuous Flight Speed in Homing Pigeons via Complementary Gamma and Theta Signatures"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Long","family":"Yang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"State-Owned Luoyang Dancheng Radio Factory, Luoyang 471000, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xin","family":"Guo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Brain Science and Brain-Computer Interface Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Aimin","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Brain Science and Brain-Computer Interface Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Zhihui","family":"Li","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"},{"name":"Henan Key Laboratory of Brain Science and Brain-Computer Interface Technology, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"171","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(71)90358-1","article-title":"The hippocampus as a spatial map. 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