{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,3]],"date-time":"2026-11-03T22:44:52Z","timestamp":1793745892823,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"17","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]],"date-time":"2026-08-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1787356800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"2024 Hunan Key Project of Basic Research Program","award":["2024JC0007"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024JC0007"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88 (ETEC-K88) is a primary causative agent of post-weaning diarrhea in piglets, yet most in vitro infection models evaluate epithelial injury at a limited number of endpoint time points, failing to capture the temporal dynamics of host\u2013pathogen interactions. Here, we established a time-resolved ETEC-K88 challenge model in IPEC-J2 cells from 0 h to 48 h. The data showed that ETEC-K88 adhesion significantly increased after 4 h and peaked after 24 h, with a critical response transition at 4\u20138 h characterized by coordinated changes in mRNA expression of tryptophan metabolism, tight junction, aquaporins, and Solute Carrier Transporters (SLC). Additionally, we also evaluated the protective effects of L-tryptophan supplementation in IPEC-J2 with ETEC-K88 infection and found that its addition significantly restored the disrupted gene expression related to tryptophan metabolism, transporter channels, aquaporins, and cell cycle. Finally, two different mouse strains, C57BL\/6J and BALB\/c mice, were challenged with ETEC-K88 to assess strain- and segment-specific intestinal responses. Although overt diarrhea was not clearly induced in mice, the ETEC-K88 fimbria receptor genes were induced in both mice strains. Additionally, both mice strains exhibited obvious intestinal histomorphological abnormalities and showed the strain- and segment-specific expression of intestinal stem cell marker genes (Lgr5, SOX9), goblet cell marker gene TFF3, and aquaporin genes. In conclusion, we have defined a temporal epithelial response framework for ETEC-K88 infection in IPEC-J2 cells and mice, providing a theoretical basis for developing nutritional strategies against ETEC-associated intestinal dysfunction in pig production.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16172632","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:20:02Z","timestamp":1787563202000},"page":"2632","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Time-Resolved Epithelial Responses to ETEC-K88 Reveal Tryptophan-Linked Protection in IPEC-J2 Cells and Strain-Specific Intestinal Injury in Mice"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Zhenguo","family":"Hu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, Key Laboratory of Agro-Ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"},{"name":"College of Modern Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yuezhou","family":"Yao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sitong","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-5937-0841","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Songlin","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Yulong","family":"Yin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Animal Nutritional Physiology and Metabolic Process, Key Laboratory of Agro-Ecological Processes in Subtropical Region, Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changsha 410125, China"},{"name":"College of Modern Agricultural Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 101408, China"},{"name":"Yuelushan Laboratory, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Feiyue","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Xiongzhuo","family":"Tang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China"},{"name":"Yuelushan Laboratory, Changsha 410128, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1186\/s40813-017-0063-4","article-title":"Swine enteric colibacillosis: Diagnosis, therapy and antimicrobial resistance","volume":"3","author":"Luppi","year":"2017","journal-title":"Porc. Health Manag."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"443","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijmm.2005.07.003","article-title":"Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli in veterinary medicine","volume":"295","author":"Nagy","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int. J. Med. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2055943","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2022.2055943","article-title":"Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli: Intestinal pathogenesis mechanisms and colonization resistance by gut microbiota","volume":"14","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"30","DOI":"10.1186\/1297-9716-44-30","article-title":"Both flagella and F4 fimbriae from F4ac+ enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli contribute to attachment to IPEC-J2 cells in vitro","volume":"44","author":"Zhou","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Res."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jiang, K., Xu, Y., Yuan, B., Yue, Y., Zhao, M., Luo, R., Wu, H., Wang, L., Zhang, Y., and Xiao, J. (2022). Effect of Autoinducer-2 Quorum Sensing Inhibitor on Interspecies Quorum Sensing. Front. Microbiol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2022.791802"},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"91","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-026-01405-y","article-title":"Butyrate combined with niacin enhances intestinal barrier function repair in weaned piglets infected with ETEC by promoting colonic metabolism and antimicrobial peptide expression","volume":"17","author":"Tang","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107409","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jff.2026.107409","article-title":"Dietary \u03b2-carotene alleviated ETEC-induced intestinal barrier dysfunction and inflammation by reshaping gut microbiota and metabolic profiles in piglets","volume":"143","author":"Li","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Funct. Foods"},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"skaa259","DOI":"10.1093\/jas\/skaa259","article-title":"Effects of a microencapsulated formula of organic acids and essential oils on nutrient absorption, immunity, gut barrier function, and abundance of enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli F4 in weaned piglets challenged with E. coli F4","volume":"98","author":"Choi","year":"2020","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2473524","DOI":"10.1080\/19490976.2025.2473524","article-title":"The gut-skin axis: A bi-directional, microbiota-driven relationship with therapeutic potential","volume":"17","author":"Celiberto","year":"2025","journal-title":"Gut Microbes"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"61","DOI":"10.1038\/s41413-026-00550-4","article-title":"The gut-bone axis: Impact of diet on gut microbiome and osteoporosis","volume":"14","author":"Wang","year":"2026","journal-title":"Bone Res."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fan, W., Majid, M., Lai, Y., Zeng, W., Ullah, H., Qian, Z., Huang, L., Mei, Q., Dai, W., and Yuan, X. (2026). Dietary intervention with Cordyceps sinensis suppresses pulmonary fibrosis via gut\u2013lung axis regulation and TLR4\/MyD88\/Nrf2 signaling. npj Sci. Food, epub ahead of printing.","DOI":"10.1038\/s41538-026-01010-3"},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yin, Y., Guo, Q., Zhou, X., Duan, Y., Yang, Y., Gong, S., Han, M., Liu, Y., Yang, Z., and Chen, Q. (2022). Role of brain-gut-muscle axis in human health and energy homeostasis. Front. Nutr., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnut.2022.947033"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"110050","DOI":"10.1016\/j.meatsci.2026.110050","article-title":"Gut-muscle axis improves meat quality by regulating energy metabolism","volume":"235","author":"Liu","year":"2026","journal-title":"Meat Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"100177","DOI":"10.59717\/j.xinn-life.2026.100177","article-title":"Tryptophan metabolism in inter-organ communication and its potential applications for disease prevention and control","volume":"3","author":"Tang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Innov. Life"},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hou, Y., Li, J., and Ying, S. (2023). Tryptophan Metabolism and Gut Microbiota: A Novel Regulatory Axis Integrating the Microbiome, Immunity, and Cancer. Metabolites, 13.","DOI":"10.3390\/metabo13111166"},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marino, L.V., Paulson, S., Ashton, J.J., Weeks, C., Young, A., Pappachan, J.V., Swann, J., Johnson, M.J., and Beattie, R.M. (2022). A Scoping Review: Urinary Markers of Metabolic Maturation in Preterm Infants and Future Interventions to Improve Growth. Nutrients, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu14193957"},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lauriola, M., Valkenburg, S., Dejongh, S., Zadora, W., Krukowski, H., Evenepoel, P., Raes, J., Farr\u00e9, R., Glorieux, G., and Meijers, B. (2026). Kidney Function Modulates Gut Microbial Metabolism. Toxins, 18.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins18040176"},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101811","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcmgh.2026.101811","article-title":"Dietary Tryptophan Enhances Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation and Reduces Colitis Through Microbial Metabolism","volume":"20","author":"Rondeau","year":"2026","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Gastroenterol. Hepatol."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chojnacki, C., B\u0142o\u0144ska, A., Konrad, P., Chojnacki, M., Podogrocki, M., and Poplawski, T. (2023). Changes in Tryptophan Metabolism on Serotonin and Kynurenine Pathways in Patients with Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Nutrients, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/nu15051262"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1416","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-28114-0","article-title":"Citrulline and kynurenine to tryptophan ratio: Potential EED (environmental enteric dysfunction) biomarkers in acute watery diarrhea among children in Bangladesh","volume":"13","author":"Das","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci. Rep."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1127","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijbiomac.2022.09.246","article-title":"Polysaccharides derived from Shenling Baizhu San improve colitis via modulating tryptophan metabolism in mice","volume":"222","author":"Lv","year":"2022","journal-title":"Int. J. Biol. Macromol."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, C., Shao, H., Li, D., Xiao, N., and Tan, Z. (2020). Role of tryptophan-metabolizing microbiota in mice diarrhea caused by Folium sennae extracts. BMC Microbiol., 20.","DOI":"10.1186\/s12866-020-01864-x"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"123","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2024.03.005","article-title":"Tryptophan metabolism and piglet diarrhea: Where we stand and the challenges ahead","volume":"17","author":"Zhao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1186\/s11658-024-00603-8","article-title":"ACE2 mediates tryptophan alleviation on diarrhea by repairing intestine barrier involved mTOR pathway","volume":"29","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cell. Mol. Biol. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, G., Gu, M., Zhao, Q., Du, Z., Wang, K., and Li, C. (2026). Porcine Beta Defensin 2 Alleviates Apoptosis and Restores Proliferation in IPEC-J2 Cells Challenged with ETEC K88 by Inhibiting the Akt Signaling Pathway. Probiotics Antimicrob. Proteins, epub ahead of printing.","DOI":"10.1007\/s12602-026-11138-z"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4464002","DOI":"10.1155\/2021\/4464002","article-title":"Clostridium butyricum Protects IPEC-J2 Cells from ETEC K88-Induced Oxidative Damage by Activating the Nrf2\/ARE Signaling Pathway","volume":"2021","author":"Dou","year":"2021","journal-title":"Oxidative Med. Cell. Longev."},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1016\/j.vetmic.2013.07.035","article-title":"Screening of extracts from natural feed ingredients for their ability to reduce enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88 adhesion to porcine intestinal epithelial cell-line IPEC-J2","volume":"167","author":"Hermes","year":"2013","journal-title":"Vet. Microbiol."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"50","DOI":"10.1186\/s40104-026-01368-0","article-title":"Kynurenine promotes porcine intestinal epithelial cell proliferation by activating the AHR-MST1-YAP1 axis","volume":"17","author":"Hu","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci. Biotechnol."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gao, J., Cao, S., Xiao, H., Hu, S., Yao, K., Huang, K., Jiang, Z., and Wang, L. (2022). Lactobacillus reuteri 1 Enhances Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Function and Alleviates the Inflammatory Response Induced by Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88 via Suppressing the MLCK Signaling Pathway in IPEC-J2 Cells. Front. Immunol., 13.","DOI":"10.3389\/fimmu.2022.897395"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"S106","DOI":"10.1016\/j.freeradbiomed.2018.10.255","article-title":"Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica Typhimurium induce mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammation and oxidative stress conditions in porcine intestinal epithelial cells","volume":"128","author":"Lapointe","year":"2018","journal-title":"Free Radic. Biol. Med."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"45","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2010.06.021","article-title":"The metabolic impact of zinc oxide on porcine intestinal cells and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K88","volume":"133","author":"Sargeant","year":"2010","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.molimm.2011.07.002","article-title":"Inflammatory response of porcine epithelial IPEC J2 cells to enterotoxigenic E. coli infection is modulated by zinc supplementation","volume":"48","author":"Sargeant","year":"2011","journal-title":"Mol. Immunol."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bekusova, V., Droessler, L., Amasheh, S., and Markov, A.G. (2021). Effects of 1,2-Dimethylhydrazine on Barrier Properties of Rat Large Intestine and IPEC-J2 Cells. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 22.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms221910278"},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"106181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2023.106181","article-title":"Overexpression of SIRT1 alleviates oxidative damage and barrier dysfunction in CPB2 toxin-infected IPEC-J2 cells","volume":"181","author":"Xie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.rvsc.2022.11.002","article-title":"The protective effect of Eleutheroside E against the mechanical barrier dysfunction triggered by lipopolysaccharide in IPEC-J2 cells","volume":"154","author":"Li","year":"2023","journal-title":"Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, C., Fu, Y., Wang, R., Wang, Q., Yu, H., and Zhang, J. (2023). Quercetin Attenuates the Combined Effects of Zearalenone and Lipopolysaccharide on IPEC-J2 Cell Injury through Activating the Nrf2 Signaling Pathway. Toxins, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins15120679"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1061","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aninu.2021.02.003","article-title":"4-Phenylbutyric acid accelerates rehabilitation of barrier function in IPEC-J2 cell monolayer model","volume":"7","author":"Jiang","year":"2021","journal-title":"Anim. Nutr."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Springler, A., Vrubel, G.-J., Mayer, E., Schatzmayr, G., and Novak, B. (2016). Effect of Fusarium-Derived Metabolites on the Barrier Integrity of Differentiated Intestinal Porcine Epithelial Cells (IPEC-J2). Toxins, 8.","DOI":"10.3390\/toxins8110345"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"281","DOI":"10.1007\/s11259-025-10858-x","article-title":"Transcriptomic analysis reveals the impact of Rutin on the proliferation, barrier function, and transcription of Porcine IPEC-J2","volume":"49","author":"Wang","year":"2025","journal-title":"Vet. Res. Commun."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Liu, S., Qiu, Y., Gu, F., Xu, X., Wu, S., Jin, Z., Wang, L., Gao, K., Zhu, C., and Yang, X. (2022). Niacin Improves Intestinal Health through Up-Regulation of AQPs Expression Induced by GPR109A. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 23.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms23158332"},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5240","DOI":"10.2527\/jas2017.1806","article-title":"Differential expression of intestinal ion transporters and water channel aquaporins in young piglets challenged with enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli K881","volume":"95","author":"Zhu","year":"2017","journal-title":"J. Anim. Sci."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1016\/j.lfs.2007.04.036","article-title":"Downregulation in aquaporin 4 and aquaporin 8 expression of the colon associated with the induction of allergic diarrhea in a mouse model of food allergy","volume":"81","author":"Yamamoto","year":"2007","journal-title":"Life Sci."},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cao, Y., He, Y., Wei, C., Li, J., Qu, L., Zhang, H., Cheng, Y., and Qiao, B. (2018). Aquaporins Alteration Profiles Revealed Different Actions of Senna, Sennosides, and Sennoside A in Diarrhea-Rats. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 19.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms19103210"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhang, D., Yang, L., Su, W., Zhao, Y., Ma, X., Zhou, H., Xu, B., Zhang, K., and Ma, H. (2018). Aquaporin-4 Is Downregulated in the Basolateral Membrane of Ileum Epithelial Cells during Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli-Induced Diarrhea in Mice. Front. Microbiol., 8.","DOI":"10.3389\/fmicb.2017.02655"},{"key":"ref_45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ikarashi, N., Kon, R., and Sugiyama, K. (2016). Aquaporins in the Colon as a New Therapeutic Target in Diarrhea and Constipation. Int. J. Mol. Sci., 17.","DOI":"10.3390\/ijms17071172"},{"key":"ref_46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"678","DOI":"10.1016\/j.nutres.2010.09.009","article-title":"Increased serum free tryptophan in patients with diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome","volume":"30","author":"Christmas","year":"2010","journal-title":"Nutr. Res."},{"key":"ref_47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"105186","DOI":"10.1016\/j.livsci.2023.105186","article-title":"Effects of dietary tryptophan and threonine supplementation above nutritional recommendations on performance, diarrhoea, and intestinal health parameters in weaned piglets","volume":"269","author":"Engelsmann","year":"2023","journal-title":"Livest. Sci."},{"key":"ref_48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jare.2025.04.016","article-title":"Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron: A symbiotic ally against diarrhea along with modulation of gut microbial ecological networks via tryptophan metabolism and AHR-Nrf2 signaling","volume":"80","author":"Luo","year":"2026","journal-title":"J. Adv. Res."},{"key":"ref_49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Loewenstein, F., Mascher, S., Frey, T., and Lechner, M. (2026). Feeding of Undocked Pigs: Effects of Feed Components and Feed Composition. Animals, 16.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16081174"},{"key":"ref_50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Giallourou, N., Medlock, G.L., Bolick, D.T., Medeiros, P.H., Ledwaba, S.E., Kolling, G.L., Tung, K., Guerry, P., Swann, J.R., and Guerrant, R.L. (2018). A novel mouse model of Campylobacter jejuni enteropathy and diarrhea. PLoS Pathog., 14.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.ppat.1007083"},{"key":"ref_51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ledwaba, S.E., Costa, D.V.S., Bolick, D.T., Giallourou, N., Medeiros, P.H.Q.S., Swann, J.R., Traore, A.N., Potgieter, N., Nataro, J.P., and Guerrant, R.L. (2020). Enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Infection Induces Diarrhea, Intestinal Damage, Metabolic Alterations, and Increased Intestinal Permeability in a Murine Model. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.595266"},{"key":"ref_52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4368","DOI":"10.1039\/D3FO00268C","article-title":"Lactobacillus paracasei influences the gut-microbiota-targeted metabolic modulation of the immune status of diarrheal mice","volume":"14","author":"Ren","year":"2023","journal-title":"Food Funct."},{"key":"ref_53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"65","DOI":"10.1016\/j.micpath.2018.04.005","article-title":"Effect of nisin on microbiome-brain-gut axis neurochemicals by Escherichia coli -induced diarrhea in mice","volume":"119","author":"Jia","year":"2018","journal-title":"Microb. Pathog."},{"key":"ref_54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hauser, J.R., Atitkar, R.R., Petro, C.D., Lindsey, R.L., Strockbine, N., O\u2019Brien, A.D., and Melton-Celsa, A.R. (2020). The Virulence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Isolates in Mice Depends on Shiga Toxin Type 2a (Stx2a)-Induction and High Levels of Stx2a in Stool. Front. Cell. Infect. Microbiol., 10.","DOI":"10.3389\/fcimb.2020.00062"},{"key":"ref_55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"7219","DOI":"10.1021\/acs.jafc.4c00185","article-title":"Ovomucin Hydrolysates Reduce Bacterial Adhesion and Inflammation in Enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) K88-Challenged Intestinal Epithelial Cells","volume":"72","author":"Bao","year":"2024","journal-title":"J. Agric. Food Chem."}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/17\/2632\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,24]],"date-time":"2026-08-24T09:37:30Z","timestamp":1787564250000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/17\/2632"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]},"references-count":55,"journal-issue":{"issue":"17","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16172632"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16172632","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,22]]}}}