{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,10]],"date-time":"2026-09-10T11:11:14Z","timestamp":1789038674004,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"18","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1788912000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Animal Welfare Department of the Flemish Government","award":["LNE\/STG\/DWZ\/16\/04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LNE\/STG\/DWZ\/16\/04"]}]},{"award":["LNE\/STG\/DWZ\/16\/04"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["LNE\/STG\/DWZ\/16\/04"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/04qxsrb28","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Foie gras production is based on the force-feeding (gavage) of waterfowl to induce hepatic steatosis and subsequent liver enlargement. This practice has been widely debated due to concerns regarding animal welfare. This review provides a comprehensive overview of foie gras production, with a primary focus on the welfare implications of force-feeding in ducks, while contextualising historical and alternative practices involving geese. Evidence was evaluated across behavioural, physiological, pathological and health-related outcomes, together with procedural, housing and environmental factors. Endocrine findings are mixed, but repeated restraint and tube insertion can cause injuries to the upper digestive tract, while progressive feed administration produces marked liver enlargement, altered hepatic function and increased metabolic heat load. Reduced activity, locomotor impairment, lesions and elevated mortality have also been reported, although study designs and production methods and conditions vary. Alternatives under investigation include spontaneous fattening, microbiome-based interventions, cultivated-cell products and plant-based or processed analogues. Evidence concerning their welfare benefits, product quality, scalability and economic feasibility remains limited. Overall, the accumulated scientific evidence raises significant concerns regarding the welfare of force-fed birds and underscores the need for continued exploration of viable alternative production strategies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16182838","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T12:26:11Z","timestamp":1788956771000},"page":"2838","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Foie Gras Production: A Literature Review on the Welfare Implications of Force-Feeding of Ducks"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5295-113X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bert","family":"Driessen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Morphology, Medical Imaging, Orthopaedics, Physiotherapy and Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium"},{"name":"Animal Welfare Solutions, 3583 Paal, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Lore","family":"Pellens","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Welfare Solutions, 3583 Paal, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"B\u00e9ke","family":"Nivelle","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Nukamel, 6001 SE Weert, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kirsten","family":"Van Rossem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Welfare Solutions, 3583 Paal, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4429-0364","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Johan","family":"Buyse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Livestock Physiology, Department of Biosystems, KU Leuven, 3001 Heverlee, Belgium"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tifs.2016.12.006","article-title":"Consumer Perception and Behaviour Regarding Sustainable Protein Consumption: A Systematic Review","volume":"61","author":"Hartmann","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends Food Sci. 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