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Experimental rodent models provide valuable tools for investigating the mechanisms underlying toxicant-induced olfactory injury under controlled conditions. In particular, intranasal vanadium exposure has emerged as a relevant experimental approach because it reproduces an environmentally relevant route of exposure while inducing pathological changes throughout the olfactory system. This review integrates current knowledge derived from experimental rodent models of intranasal vanadium exposure, covering the anatomy and physiology of the olfactory system, intranasal delivery strategies, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying vanadium-induced injury, and the associated histopathological, biochemical, behavioural and functional alterations. Vanadium-induced injury is characterized by oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, neuroinflammation, dysregulation of intracellular signalling pathways, and neuronal degeneration, leading to structural and functional alterations throughout the olfactory pathway. Finally, the review identifies current knowledge gaps regarding olfactory epithelial regeneration and functional recovery following toxic injury and highlights priorities for future research to improve experimental models of environmentally induced olfactory dysfunction.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16182877","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T09:34:01Z","timestamp":1789378441000},"page":"2877","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Modelling Olfactory Dysfunction in Rodents Through Intranasal Vanadium Exposure"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Margarida","family":"Pereira","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agroenvironmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9842-1759","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sofia","family":"Alves-Pimenta","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agroenvironmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Veterinary and Animal Science Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3880-3442","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Carlos","family":"Ven\u00e2ncio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agroenvironmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5928-6483","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Maria de Lurdes","family":"Pinto","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Veterinary and Animal Science Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4879-8624","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Bruno","family":"Cola\u00e7o","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Centre for the Research and Technology of Agroenvironmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB), Institute for Innovation, Capacity Building and Sustainability of Agri-Food Production (Inov4Agro), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"},{"name":"Veterinary and Animal Science Research Centre (CECAV), Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Science (AL4AnimalS), University of Tr\u00e1s-os-Montes and Alto Douro (UTAD), Quinta de Prados, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2005.10.022","article-title":"Olfaction: Diverse species, conserved principles","volume":"48","author":"Ache","year":"2005","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"115","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.physiol.70.113006.100608","article-title":"Subsystem organization of the mammalian sense of smell","volume":"71","author":"Munger","year":"2009","journal-title":"Annu. 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