{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T20:55:02Z","timestamp":1792788902236,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":44,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1790208000000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"China Postdoctoral Science Foundation","award":["2024M752934"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024M752934"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"crossref"}]},{"award":["2024M752934"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2024M752934"]}],"id":[{"id":"https:\/\/ror.org\/0426zh255","id-type":"ROR","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Goal-directed behavior requires animals to integrate environmental information and select appropriate actions\u2014functions commonly associated with the mammalian prefrontal cortex (PFC). The avian nidopallium caudolaterale (NCL) is functionally analogous to the PFC, but its neural activity across different actions at a decision point remains unclear. At a maze arm entrance, pigeons may enter, hesitate, or leave according to available information. We recorded local field potential (LFP) activity from the NCL in three adult pigeons performing a goal-directed maze task. Direct-enter, hesitation-leave, and no-food-leave were compared with direct-leave by analyzing the theta- and alpha-band power, interchannel coherence, functional network topology, and behavioral state decoding. Compared with direct-leave, the other three behaviors were generally accompanied by higher power and interchannel coherence in both frequency bands. The mean node strength and clustering coefficient also tended to be higher, whereas global efficiency and modularity exhibited more complex patterns. Decoding suggested that power and functional network features contained information relevant to differentiating these behavioral states, with the overall performance being highest for no-food-leave versus direct-leave. These findings indicate that NCL low-frequency neural population activity, interchannel coordination, and functional network organization are associated with entrance-related behavioral states and may contribute to entrance-related information processing and subsequent behavioral adjustment.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16193013","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]],"date-time":"2026-09-24T16:29:53Z","timestamp":1790267393000},"page":"3013","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Characterization of Low-Frequency Local Field Potential Activity and Functional Network Organization in the Pigeon Nidopallium Caudolaterale Across Entrance-Related Behavioral States"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"given":"Zheng","family":"Xu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"software","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"formal-analysis","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"data-curation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-original-draft","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"visualization","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Deyu","family":"Zhao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"validation","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"investigation","vocabulary":"credit"}]},{"given":"Zhizhong","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Electrical and Information Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, China"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"},{"role":"conceptualization","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"methodology","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"resources","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"writing-review-editing","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"supervision","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"project-administration","vocabulary":"credit"},{"role":"funding-acquisition","vocabulary":"credit"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"96","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2011.08.010","article-title":"Neural Systems Analysis of Decision Making during Goal-Directed Navigation","volume":"96","author":"Penner","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4602","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0407332102","article-title":"Coding for Spatial Goals in the Prelimbic\/Infralimbic Area of the Rat Frontal Cortex","volume":"102","author":"Hok","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1057","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2012.12.002","article-title":"The Role of Medial Prefrontal Cortex in Memory and Decision Making","volume":"76","author":"Euston","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"686","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2005.10.003","article-title":"The Avian \u201cPrefrontal Cortex\u201d and Cognition","volume":"15","year":"2005","journal-title":"Curr. Opin. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"212","DOI":"10.1007\/s00426-011-0377-9","article-title":"The Convergent Evolution of Neural Substrates for Cognition","volume":"76","year":"2012","journal-title":"Psychol. Res."},{"key":"ref_6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"291","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.02.001","article-title":"Cognition without Cortex","volume":"20","author":"Bugnyar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"239","DOI":"10.1007\/s00429-011-0301-5","article-title":"The Receptor Architecture of the Pigeons\u2019 Nidopallium Caudolaterale: An Avian Analogue to the Mammalian Prefrontal Cortex","volume":"216","author":"Herold","year":"2011","journal-title":"Brain Struct. Funct."},{"key":"ref_8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"125","DOI":"10.1016\/S0166-4328(98)00006-0","article-title":"Selective Deficits in Reversal Learning after Neostriatum Caudolaterale Lesions in Pigeons: Possible Behavioral Equivalencies to the Mammalian Prefrontal System","volume":"96","author":"Hartmann","year":"1998","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rose, J., and Colombo, M. (2005). Neural Correlates of Executive Control in the Avian Brain. PLoS Biol., 3.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pbio.0030190"},{"key":"ref_10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2878","DOI":"10.1038\/ncomms3878","article-title":"Abstract Rule Neurons in the Endbrain Support Intelligent Behaviour in Corvid Songbirds","volume":"4","author":"Veit","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Commun."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"112","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2017.02.042","article-title":"The Role of Nidopallium Caudolaterale in the Goal-Directed Behavior of Pigeons","volume":"326","author":"Liu","year":"2017","journal-title":"Behav. Brain Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wang, Z., Wang, H., Zhu, J., Zhao, D., Wang, R., Ma, Z., Zeng, S., and Wang, J. (2025). Characterization of Neural Network Connectivity and Modularity of Pigeon Nidopallium Caudolaterale during Target Detection. Animals, 15.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani15040609"},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1099745","article-title":"Neuronal Oscillations in Cortical Networks","volume":"304","author":"Draguhn","year":"2004","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"407","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3241","article-title":"The Origin of Extracellular Fields and Currents\u2014EEG, ECoG, LFP and Spikes","volume":"13","author":"Anastassiou","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"770","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3599","article-title":"Modelling and Analysis of Local Field Potentials for Studying the Function of Cortical Circuits","volume":"14","author":"Einevoll","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"121","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn3137","article-title":"Spectral Fingerprints of Large-Scale Neuronal Interactions","volume":"13","author":"Siegel","year":"2012","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"474","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2005.08.011","article-title":"A Mechanism for Cognitive Dynamics: Neuronal Communication through Neuronal Coherence","volume":"9","author":"Fries","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends Cogn. Sci."},{"key":"ref_18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2015.09.034","article-title":"Rhythms for Cognition: Communication through Coherence","volume":"88","author":"Fries","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bastos, A.M., and Schoffelen, J.M. (2016). A Tutorial Review of Functional Connectivity Analysis Methods and Their Interpretational Pitfalls. Front. Syst. Neurosci., 9.","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2015.00175"},{"key":"ref_20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4502","article-title":"Network Neuroscience","volume":"20","author":"Bassett","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nat. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"186","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn2575","article-title":"Complex Brain Networks: Graph Theoretical Analysis of Structural and Functional Systems","volume":"10","author":"Bullmore","year":"2009","journal-title":"Nat. Rev. Neurosci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"056131","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.70.056131","article-title":"Analysis of Weighted Networks","volume":"70","author":"Newman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"440","DOI":"10.1038\/30918","article-title":"Collective Dynamics of \u201cSmall-World\u201d Networks","volume":"393","author":"Watts","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"ref_24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"198701","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.87.198701","article-title":"Efficient Behavior of Small-World Networks","volume":"87","author":"Latora","year":"2001","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. Lett."},{"key":"ref_25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8577","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.0601602103","article-title":"Modularity and Community Structure in Networks","volume":"103","author":"Newman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA"},{"key":"ref_26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1059","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.10.003","article-title":"Complex Network Measures of Brain Connectivity: Uses and Interpretations","volume":"52","author":"Rubinov","year":"2010","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fang, K., Guo, X., Tang, Y., Wang, W., Wang, Z., and Dai, Z. (2024). High-Frequency Local Field Potential Oscillations for Pigeons in Effective Turning. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14030509"},{"key":"ref_28","unstructured":"Karten, H.J., and Hodos, W. (1967). A Stereotaxic Atlas of the Brain of the Pigeon (Columba livia), Johns Hopkins Press."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1055","DOI":"10.1109\/PROC.1982.12433","article-title":"Spectrum Estimation and Harmonic Analysis","volume":"70","author":"Thomson","year":"1982","journal-title":"Proc. IEEE"},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"691","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-3495(99)77236-X","article-title":"Analysis of Dynamic Brain Imaging Data","volume":"76","author":"Mitra","year":"1999","journal-title":"Biophys. J."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Wijk, B.C.M., Stam, C.J., and Daffertshofer, A. (2010). Comparing Brain Networks of Different Size and Connectivity Density Using Graph Theory. PLoS ONE, 5.","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0013701"},{"key":"ref_32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"066111","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.70.066111","article-title":"Finding Community Structure in Very Large Networks","volume":"70","author":"Clauset","year":"2004","journal-title":"Phys. Rev. E"},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1022627411411","article-title":"Support-Vector Networks","volume":"20","author":"Cortes","year":"1995","journal-title":"Mach. Learn."},{"key":"ref_34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9868.2005.00503.x","article-title":"Regularization and Variable Selection via the Elastic Net","volume":"67","author":"Zou","year":"2005","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B Stat. Methodol."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"166","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.10.038","article-title":"Assessing and Tuning Brain Decoders: Cross-Validation, Caveats, and Guidelines","volume":"145","author":"Varoquaux","year":"2017","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"ref_36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"534","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2019.3671","article-title":"Establishment of Best Practices for Evidence for Prediction: A Review","volume":"77","author":"Poldrack","year":"2020","journal-title":"JAMA Psychiatry"},{"key":"ref_37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"861","DOI":"10.1016\/j.patrec.2005.10.010","article-title":"An Introduction to ROC Analysis","volume":"27","author":"Fawcett","year":"2006","journal-title":"Pattern Recognit. Lett."},{"key":"ref_38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2015.01.010","article-title":"Exceeding Chance Level by Chance: The Caveat of Theoretical Chance Levels in Brain Signal Classification and Statistical Assessment of Decoding Accuracy","volume":"250","author":"Combrisson","year":"2015","journal-title":"J. Neurosci. Methods"},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the False Discovery Rate: A Practical and Powerful Approach to Multiple Testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"J. R. Stat. Soc. Ser. B Methodol."},{"key":"ref_40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2017.10.013","article-title":"Goal-Directed Behavior Elevates Gamma Oscillations in Nidopallium Caudolaterale of Pigeon","volume":"137","author":"Liu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Brain Res. Bull."},{"key":"ref_41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"102372","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pneurobio.2022.102372","article-title":"Oscillations without Cortex: Working Memory Modulates Brainwaves in the Endbrain of Crows","volume":"219","author":"Hahn","year":"2022","journal-title":"Prog. Neurobiol."},{"key":"ref_42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Li, M., Fan, J., Lin, L., Shang, Z., and Wan, H. (2022). Elevated Gamma Connectivity in Nidopallium Caudolaterale of Pigeons during Spatial Path Adjustment. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12081019"},{"key":"ref_43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kersten, Y., Moll, F.W., Erdle, S., and Nieder, A. (2024). Input and Output Connections of the Crow Nidopallium Caudolaterale. eNeuro, 11.","DOI":"10.1523\/ENEURO.0098-24.2024"},{"key":"ref_44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhu, J., Zhang, Z., Liu, G., and Wan, H. (2024). Enhanced Hippocampus\u2013Nidopallium Caudolaterale Interaction in Visual\u2013Spatial Associative Learning of Pigeons. Animals, 14.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani14030456"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/19\/3013\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,26]],"date-time":"2026-09-26T04:10:32Z","timestamp":1790395832000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/19\/3013"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]},"references-count":44,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16193013"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16193013","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,24]]}}}