{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T09:51:45Z","timestamp":1791453105297,"version":"4.3.3"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"19","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]],"date-time":"2026-10-07T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1791331200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>High urban pigeon densities can generate conflicts related to building and heritage damage, public-health concerns, nuisance, and the need for socially acceptable population-management strategies. The management of feral pigeon (Columba livia) populations in urban environments requires approaches that are effective, sustainable, publicly acceptable, and legally compliant. Among available non-lethal options, fertility control based on nicarbazin, originally developed in the 1950s as a poultry anticoccidial before being adapted for urban bird management, has become one of the most extensively investigated strategies. This narrative review synthesizes the scientific literature and regulatory experience concerning nicarbazin-based fertility control, including products authorized as veterinary medicinal products in Europe (Ovistop\u00ae, ACME DRUGS Srl, Cavriago, Italy and R12\u00ae, ACME Srl, Cavriago, Italy) and as an EPA-registered pesticide product in the United States (OvoControl\u00ae P, Innolytics, LLC, CA, USA), covering its historical development, mechanism of action, regulatory frameworks, experimental evidence, long-term field studies, and post-marketing experience. The available evidence indicates that the effectiveness of nicarbazin is supported by multiple independent sources, including laboratory investigations, pharmacokinetic studies, long-term field evaluations, regulatory assessments, and more than two decades of operational use, although successful population management depends not only on biological efficacy but also on program implementation, monitoring, and long-term management. Based on the evidence reviewed, a Three-Pillar Framework integrating population monitoring, fertility control, and environmental and social management is proposed. Remaining evidence gaps concern the standardization of monitoring and outcome assessment, the influence of population connectivity, and the economic evaluation of long-term programs, identifying priorities for future research. Overall, nicarbazin-based fertility control emerges as a scientifically validated, reversible, and humane tool for the long-term management of urban pigeon populations within a structured, adaptive framework.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani16193140","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T08:34:25Z","timestamp":1791448465000},"page":"3140","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Nicarbazin-Based Fertility Control for Urban Pigeon Management: A Review of Experimental, Regulatory and Operational Evidence"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"16","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-1960-7033","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Marco","family":"Pellizzari","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pigeon Academy, 2518AC Den Haag, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paolo Pietro","family":"Albonetti","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genoa, 16126 Genoa, Italy"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-0750-168X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Yassine","family":"Hankaz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pigeon Academy, 2518AC Den Haag, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Johnston, R.F., and Janiga, M. (1995). Feral Pigeons, Oxford University Press.","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195084092.001.0001"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1139\/z01-202","article-title":"Effects of building features on density and flock distribution of feral pigeons Columba livia var. domestica in an urban environment","volume":"80","author":"Sacchi","year":"2002","journal-title":"Can. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"715","DOI":"10.1007\/s10344-008-0201-z","article-title":"Protecting buildings against feral pigeons","volume":"54","author":"Geigenfeind","year":"2008","journal-title":"Eur. J. Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"307","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jinf.2003.11.001","article-title":"Health hazards posed by feral pigeons","volume":"48","author":"Moch","year":"2004","journal-title":"J. Infect."},{"key":"ref_5","unstructured":"Caneva, G., Nugari, M.P., and Salvadori, O. (1994). La Biologia nel Restauro, Nardini Editore."},{"key":"ref_6","unstructured":"Soloneski, S., and Larramendy, M.L. (2012). Feral Pigeons: Problems, Dynamics and Control Methods. Integrated Pest Management and Pest Control\u2014Current and Future Tactics, InTech."},{"key":"ref_7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1154","DOI":"10.1139\/z95-137","article-title":"Urban pigeon populations: Stability, home range and effect of removing individuals","volume":"73","author":"Sol","year":"1995","journal-title":"Can. J. Zool."},{"key":"ref_8","unstructured":"Farf\u00e1n Aguilar, M.A., Duarte, J., and D\u00edaz-Ruiz, F. (2022). Source Areas as a Key Factor Contributing to the Recovery Time of Controlled Feral Pigeon (Columba livia var. domestica) Colonies in Low-Density Urban Locations. Animals, 12."},{"key":"ref_9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"313","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.4272","article-title":"Reducing the availability of food to control feral pigeons: Changes in population size and composition","volume":"73","author":"Senar","year":"2017","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_10","first-page":"101","article-title":"Behavioural responses of the feral pigeon (Columbidae) to deterring systems","volume":"49","year":"2000","journal-title":"Folia Zool."},{"key":"ref_11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"306","DOI":"10.1071\/WR06153","article-title":"On the use of pharmacological sterilisation to control feral pigeon populations","volume":"34","author":"Giunchi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1071\/WR13141","article-title":"Fertility control to mitigate human\u2013wildlife conflicts: A review","volume":"41","author":"Massei","year":"2014","journal-title":"Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1014","DOI":"10.3382\/ps.0351014","article-title":"The effect of nicarbazin on reproduction in White Rock breeder hens","volume":"35","author":"Sherwood","year":"1956","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/S0368-1742(58)80031-4","article-title":"The effect of nicarbazin on growth rate, sexual maturity, egg production, fertility and hatchability","volume":"68","author":"Lucas","year":"1958","journal-title":"J. Comp. Pathol."},{"key":"ref_15","unstructured":"(2003). Valutazione dei Costi Economici e Sociali dei Colombi in Ambiente Urbano, Nomisma\u2014Societ\u00e0 di Studi Economici S.p.A."},{"key":"ref_16","unstructured":"European Commission (2021). Commission Delegated Regulation (EU) 2021\/805 of 8 March 2021 amending Annex II to Regulation (EU) 2019\/6 of the European Parliament and of the Council. Off. J. Eur. Union, L180, 3\u2013107."},{"key":"ref_17","unstructured":"Italian Ministry of Health (2007). OVISTOP\u2014Renewal of the Marketing Authorisation (AIC 103570014), Directorate-General for Animal Health and Veterinary Medicinal Products, Office IV."},{"key":"ref_18","first-page":"WR22166","article-title":"Evaluation of 8 years of fertility control (nicarbazin) to manage urban pigeon populations","volume":"51","year":"2024","journal-title":"Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonz\u00e1lez-Crespo, C., and Lav\u00edn, S. (2022). Use of Fertility Control (Nicarbazin) in Barcelona: An Effective yet Respectful Method towards Animal Welfare for the Management of Conflictive Feral Pigeon Colonies. Animals, 12.","DOI":"10.3390\/ani12070856"},{"key":"ref_20","first-page":"63","article-title":"Efficacy of nicarbazin (Ovistop\u00ae) in the containment and reduction of the populations of feral pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) in the city of Genoa, Italy: A retrospective evaluation","volume":"51","author":"Albonetti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Vet. Ital."},{"key":"ref_21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"131","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.6000","article-title":"Nicarbazin has no effect on reducing feral pigeon populations in Barcelona","volume":"77","author":"Senar","year":"2021","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.1016\/j.foodres.2017.07.011","article-title":"Current research, regulation, risk, analytical methods and monitoring results for nicarbazin in chicken meat: A perspective review","volume":"99","author":"Bacila","year":"2017","journal-title":"Food Res. Int."},{"key":"ref_23","first-page":"249","article-title":"Il controllo farmacologico delle nascite nel colombo: Contributo sperimentale","volume":"13","author":"Martelli","year":"1993","journal-title":"Ann. Fac. Med. Vet. Univ. Parma"},{"key":"ref_24","unstructured":"Ministero della Sanit\u00e0 Ovistop 0.08%\u2014Autorizzazione all\u2019immissione in commercio del medicinale veterinario; Italy."},{"key":"ref_25","unstructured":"Federal Agency for Medicines and Health Products (FAMHP) (2026, September 25). R-12, Granulate\u2014Marketing Authorisation BE-V498444; Belgium. Union Product Database. Available online: https:\/\/medicines.health.europa.eu\/veterinary\/en\/600000085239."},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_26.1","unstructured":"European Parliament and Council (2019). Regulation"},{"key":"#cr-split#-ref_26.2","unstructured":"(EU) 2019\/6 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 December 2018 on veterinary medicinal products and repealing Directive 2001\/82\/EC. Off. J. Eur. Union, L4, 43-167."},{"key":"ref_27","unstructured":"U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (2007). Notice of Pesticide Registration: OvoControl-P, Office of Pesticide Programs. EPA Registration No. 80224-1."},{"key":"ref_28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1285","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/85.7.1285","article-title":"Molecular effects of nicarbazin on avian reproduction","volume":"85","author":"Yoder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1275","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/85.7.1275","article-title":"Evaluation of nicarbazin as a potential waterfowl contraceptive using mallards as a model","volume":"85","author":"Yoder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"80","DOI":"10.1071\/WR07017","article-title":"Nicarbazin bait reduces reproduction by pigeons (Columba livia)","volume":"35","author":"Avery","year":"2008","journal-title":"Wildl. Res."},{"key":"ref_31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"197","DOI":"10.1002\/ps.439","article-title":"Quantification of plasma and egg 4,4\u2032-dinitrocarbanilide (DNC) residues for the efficient development of a nicarbazin-based contraceptive for pest waterfowl","volume":"58","author":"Johnston","year":"2002","journal-title":"Pest Manag. Sci."},{"key":"ref_32","first-page":"049","article-title":"Safety of Nicarbazin in Raptors in Relation to Pigeon Eradication Programs","volume":"7","author":"Intorre","year":"2023","journal-title":"J. Anim. Res. Vet. Sci."},{"key":"ref_33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"EFSA Panel on Additives and Products or Substances used in Animal Feed (FEEDAP), Bampidis, V., Bastos, M.L., Christensen, H., Dusemund, B., Fa\u0161mon Durjava, M., Kouba, M., Lopez-Alonso, M., L\u00f3pez Puente, S., and Marcon, F. (2021). Safety for the environment of a feed additive consisting of nicarbazin (Coxar\u00ae) for use in turkeys for fattening (Huvepharma N.V.). EFSA J., 19, 6715.","DOI":"10.2903\/j.efsa.2021.6715"},{"key":"ref_34","unstructured":"Ballarini, G., Baldaccini, N.E., and Pezza, F. (1989). Colombi in Citt\u00e0 Aspetti Biologici, Sanitari e Giuridici. Metodologie di Controllo, Istituto Nazionale di Biologia della Selvaggina \u201cAlessandro Ghigi\u201d. Documenti Tecnici No. 6."},{"key":"ref_35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1442","DOI":"10.1093\/ps\/85.8.1442","article-title":"Effect of method of delivering nicarbazin to mallards on plasma DNC levels and reproduction","volume":"85","author":"Yoder","year":"2006","journal-title":"Poult. Sci."},{"key":"ref_36","unstructured":"Albonetti, P.P., Chiaranz, G., Ferretti, S., Milia, L., Repetto, I., and De Massis, F. (2025). Manuale per la Gestione delle Popolazioni di Colombi in Ambito Urbano, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell\u2019Abruzzo e del Molise \u201cG. Caporale\u201d. Veterinaria Italiana, Collana di Monografie, Monografia No. 32."},{"key":"ref_37","unstructured":"Albonetti, P.P., Repetto, I., Chiaranz, G., Ferretti, S., and De Massis, F. (2025). Census and Control of Columba livia var. domestica in Genoa, Italy: Trends in the Higher-Central District (2010\u20132017). Vet. Ital., 61, (4)."},{"key":"ref_38","unstructured":"Federal Agency for Medicines and Health Products (FAMHP) (2022). R-12, 0.08 g\/100 g Granulate (BE-V498444)\u2014Renewal of the Marketing Authorisation, FAMHP. Dossier No. 0007517\u2014NAT\/V\/0433\/001\/R\/010."},{"key":"ref_39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"62","DOI":"10.32800\/amz.2009.07.0062","article-title":"Estima de la abundancia de palomas (Columba livia var.) de la ciudad de Barcelona y valoraci\u00f3n de la efectividad del control por eliminaci\u00f3n de individuos","volume":"7","author":"Senar","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arxius Misc. Zool."},{"key":"ref_40","first-page":"17","article-title":"Evolving Public Perceptions and Control Preferences toward Urban Pigeons in a UNESCO World Heritage City: Evidence from Serial Cross-Sectional Surveys in Sucre, Bolivia (2012\u20132024)","volume":"12","author":"Radon","year":"2026","journal-title":"Int. J. One Health"}],"container-title":["Animals"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/19\/3140\/pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T09:14:35Z","timestamp":1791450875000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mdpi.com\/2076-2615\/16\/19\/3140"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]},"references-count":41,"journal-issue":{"issue":"19","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["ani16193140"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/ani16193140","relation":{},"ISSN":["2076-2615"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2076-2615","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,7]]}}}