{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,14]],"date-time":"2026-09-14T22:53:03Z","timestamp":1789426383434,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":90,"publisher":"MDPI AG","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,25]],"date-time":"2018-06-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1529884800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Animals"],"abstract":"<jats:p>Conceptual frameworks for understanding animal welfare scientifically are widely influential. An early \u201cbiological functioning\u201d framework still influences expert opinions prepared for Courts hearing animal cruelty cases, despite deficiencies in it being revealed by the later emergence and wide scientific adoption of an \u201caffective state\u201d framework. According to \u201cbiological functioning\u201d precepts, indices of negative welfare states should predominantly be physical and\/or clinical and any that refer to animals\u2019 supposed subjective experiences, i.e., their \u201caffective states\u201d, should be excluded. However, \u201caffective state\u201d precepts, which have secure affective neuroscience and aligned animal behaviour science foundations, show that behavioural indices may be utilised to credibly identify negative welfare outcomes in terms of negative subjective experiences, or affects. It is noted that the now very wide scientific acceptance of the \u201caffective state\u201d framework is entirely consistent with the current extensive international recognition that animals of welfare significance are \u201csentient\u201d beings. A long list of negative affects is discussed and each one is described as a prelude to updating the concept of \u201csuffering\u201d or \u201cdistress\u201d, often referred to in animal welfare legislation and prosecutions for alleged ill-treatment of animals. The Five Domains Model for assessing and grading animal welfare compromise is then discussed, highlighting that it incorporates a coherent amalgamation of \u201cbiological functioning\u201d and \u201caffective state\u201d precepts into its operational features. That is followed by examples of severe-to-very-severe ill-treatment of dogs. These include inescapable psychological and\/or physical abuse or mistreatment, excessively restrictive or otherwise detrimental housing or holding conditions, and\/or seriously inadequate provision of the necessities of life, in each case drawing attention to specific affects that such ill-treatment generates. It is concluded that experts should frame their opinions in ways that include negative affective outcomes. Moreover, the cogency of such analyses should be drawn to the attention of the Judiciary when they are deliberating on suffering in animals, thereby providing a basis for them to move from a current heavy reliance on physical and\/or clinical indices of cruelty or neglect towards including in their decisions careful evaluations of animals\u2019 negative affective experiences.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.3390\/ani8070101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,25]],"date-time":"2018-06-25T11:03:25Z","timestamp":1529924605000},"page":"101","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3390\/mdpi_crossmark_policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Forensic Use of the Five Domains Model for Assessing Suffering in Cases of Animal Cruelty"],"prefix":"10.3390","volume":"8","author":[{"given":"Rebecca A.","family":"Ledger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Welfare and Behaviour Consulting, P.O. Box 72012, Sasamat RPO, Vancouver, BC V6R 4P2, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David J.","family":"Mellor","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, School of Veterinary Science, Massey University, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"1968","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,6,25]]},"reference":[{"key":"ref_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Webster, J. (1994). Assessment of animal welfare: The Five Freedoms. Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards Eden, Blackwell Science.","DOI":"10.1017\/S0263967X00001282"},{"key":"ref_2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tvjl.2007.05.009","article-title":"Assessment of positive welfare: A review","volume":"175","author":"Yeates","year":"2008","journal-title":"Vet. J."},{"key":"ref_3","unstructured":"Fraser, D. (2008). 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